LIFE WITH HEALTH 



URTY 




R.K.ROW&CO. 



V. 




fJass Q i B ? 

Book __J_ 

Copyright^ 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 

A TEXT-BOOK 

ON 

PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, AND 
SANITATION 

BY 

J. N. HURTY, M. D. 

HEALTH OFFICER OF THE STATE OF INDIANA; MEMBER OF THE 

INDIANA STATE BOARD OF HEALTH; MEMBER OF THE 

AMERICAN PUBLIC HEALTH ASSOCIATION. 



'I am come that they might have life, and that they might 
have it more abundantly. ' ' — Bible. 



CHICAGO 

E. K. EOW & COMPANY 

1906 



"V 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two Copies Received 

MAh 16 1906 
^Copyright Entry 



CLASS fa fas, no. 



Copyright 1906 

BY 

J. N. HURTY 



PKEFACE. 

When one looks into a primary schoolroom and sees 
ninety per cent of the children appearing well nourished, 
plump, rosy-cheeked, strong, bright-eyed, and joyous, and 
then passes to a group of children from twelve to four- 
teen years of age to find thirty or forty per cent looking 
ill-nourished, anemic, pale, dull-eyed, listless, or fretful, 
he cannot avoid asking why such changes have come over 
so many. If he pursues his enquiry carefully, he must 
conclude that many of the latter group of children have 
not been living right. He must admit that, in some 
important respects, these older children have not only not 
improved, but have actually degenerated. Home life and 
school life have not ministered to an all round, wholesome 
growth and development. The process of education, in 
the broad meaning of that term, has failed in some 
important particulars. 

That all children should learn to observe the essential 
principles of physiology and hygiene is now a generally 
accepted item of educational theory. It is equally clear 
that home instruction and training can only partially and 
inadequately meet this need, and, hence, that a share of 
such instruction and training must be assumed by the 
schools. 

The early attempts to meet these demands have nat- 
urally been crude and very unsatisfactory. The text- 

3 



4 PKEFACE 

books prepared for children have been either the texts of 
medical colleges in anatomy and physiology more or less 
written doivn for children, or unscientific discussions of 
matters of little vital interest or importance to the great 
majority of boys and girls. An appreciation of the real 
situation, and of the problems involved, is developing 
among thoughtful parents and educators. The problems 
do not lie primarily in anatomy and technical physiology, 
but in how children live in the home and the school. It 
is true they have to do with the organs of respiration, 
circulation, digestion, and with the nervous system, but 
they have more directly to do with the air the children 
breathe, the food they eat, with cleanliness, clothing, rest 
and recreation; in short, with all those things which make 
up the life experiences of the children. 

There is no real separation between home and school. 
The child's life is unified, hence these problems must be 
stated and discussed in such a way that the reference is 
to the whole life, and the school instruction should carry 
over to home interests and home experiences. 

This book is written from this point of view, and with 
the hope that those who study it may. be helped in form- 
ing rational habits of right living. 






CONTENTS 

CHAPTER. PAGE. 

I. INTRODUCTION 11 

II. BEEATHING AND AIK 16 

III. THE SKELETON 31 

IV. OEGANS, TISSUES, CELLS 38 

V. MUSCLES, JOINTS, MOVEMENTS 43 

VI. THE BLOOD, HEAET, AND CIRCULATION. ... 51 

VII. THE OEGANS OF DIGESTION 66 

VIII. DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 80 

IX. ELIMINATION , . 89 

X. THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM 100 

XI. THE SENSES 116 

XII. THE VOICE AND SPEECH 136 

XIII. WATEE 141 

XIV. FOODS 148 

XV. COOKING 164 

XVI. ADULTEEATED AND IMPUEE FOODS 172 

XVII. CLOTHING 177 

XVIII. BATHING AND CLEANLINESS 183 

XIX. NAECOTICS AND STIMULANTS 188 

XX. HABITATION AND SCHOOLHOUSES 199 

XXI. DUST, MICEOBES, AND INFECTION 214 

XXII. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 226 

XXIII. MANAGEMENT OF THE SICK EOOM 236 

XXIV. EMEEGENCIES 241 

INDEX 251 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

NO. PAGE. 

1. Air Sacs in the Lungs 18 

2. Showing Position of Diaphragm 19 

3. Section of the Head showing Air Passages 20 

4. The Skeleton 32 

5. The Bones of the Forearm 33 

6. The Thigh Bone 33 

7. Section of Bone 34 

8. Bone Tied in Knot 34 

9. Bones of the Hand 35 

10. Fatty Tissue 40 

11. Cells of Different Tissues 44 

12. Showing Muscles of the Back 45 

13. Showing Muscles of the Arm 46 

14. Sutures of the Skull 48 

15. The Hip Joint, Ball-and-Socket 49 

16. Blood Corpuscles 53 

17. Crystals of Haemoglobin 53 

18. The Heart and Large Arterial Trunks 56 

19. Diagram showing Valves of the Heart 58 

20. Diagram showing Sections of an Artery and Vein 60 

21. Diagram showing Circulation of the Blood 61 

22. Section of a Vein showing Valves 62 

23. Veins of Leg 62 

24. Showing Stomach, Liver, and Intestines 67 

25. Types of Glands 68 

26. Temporary Teeth 70 

7 



8 ILLUSTKATIONS 

NO. PAGE. 

27. Cross Section of an Incisor, Bicuspid, and Molar 71 

28. The Salivary Glands 73 

29. The Stomach 74 

30. Magnified Section of Mucous Membrane of Stomach .... 75 

31. Tubular Glands from Large Intestine 77 

32. Section through Wall of Small Intestine 83 

33. The Liver 85 

34. Section of the Skin 92 

35. The Kidneys 97 

36. Nerve Cell 102 

37. Nerve Fibers 103 

38. Diagram of Cerebro-Spinal System 104 

39. Cross Section of Spinal Cord 105 

40. Surface of the Brain 106 

41. Section through the Brain 108 

42. Diagram illustrating Arrangement of Nerve Fibers of 

the Brain Ill 

43. Vertical Section of the Eye 117 

44. The Muscles of the Eyeball 119 

45. Defects in Eyesight 122 

46. Test for Astigmatism 123 

47. Faulty Position often Caused by Astigmatism 124 

48. Showing the Tear Gland of the Eye 125 

49. The Olfactory Nerve 128 

50. The Tongue 130 

51. Section of the Ear 131 

52. The Bones of the Ear 132 

53. View of the Open Mouth 137 

54. Vocal Cords 138 

55. A Domestic Still 142 

56. A Dug Well showing How Water May Become Impure. . 144 

57. Drops of Milk— Magnified 149 



ILLUSTKATIONS 9 

NO. PAGE. 

58. Trichina in Pork 152 

59. Starch Grains of Potato 160 

60. Potato, showing Proportion of Elements 161 

61. Folding Bath Tub , 184 

62. Diagram showing Ventilation Plan 205 

63. Diagram showing Heat entering Boom at Different 

Places 206 

64. Showing Heating by Stove, and Direct-Indirect Plan. . . 207 

65. Desk too High for Pupil 212 

66. Desk too Low for Pupil 212 

67. Correct Position 213 

68. Various Kinds of Bacteria 219 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION- 
HYGIENE 

According to mythology, Hygeia was the daughter of 
Aesculapius, the god of medicine. The story tells us that 
Aesculapius, being touched by the suffering of mankind, 
entered upon the life work of curing disease. His daugh- 
ter Hygeia observed that most of the sickness which 
plagued the world was brought on by bad living, such as 
gorging with food, eating unwholesome food, drinking 
wines, drinking impure water, breathing impure air, and 
paying insufficient attention to cleanliness. She con- 
cluded, therefore, that it was better to prevent disease 
than to get it and then try to cure it. In this she was 
far wiser than her father. Ill health, she plainly saw, was 
largely the result of ignorance and carelessness. That is 
the keynote of this book. 

Education in right living, then, is the way to health, 
and to the enjoyment of abundant life. And this is Hy- 
giene. A knowledge of the subject requires, to some de- 
gree, the study of the structure of the body, and, to a con- 
siderable degree, the study of physiology, which treats of 

11 



12 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

the organs. of the body and the work they perform. Hy- 
giene has two divisions — moral and physical. 

Moral Hygiene is of first importance. A healthy mind 
must lead a healthy body. Without moral health man is, 
indeed, a failure. Clean thoughts are necessary for clean 
living. We should reject bad thoughts from our minds 
as we exclude poison from the stomach. Let the mind 
contemplate good and beautiful and true things, and the 
expression of the face and the actions will be those of a 
a real human being. The secret of genuine success and 
happiness is to do good to others, for the sake of doing 
good. There should be constant effort to learn and im- 
prove the mind, not in order to achieve triumphs over 
others, but that we may be better able to help others. The 
patriarch of old understood the situation when he wrote: 
"If thou wilt diligently hearken to the voice of the Lord 
thy God, and wilt do that which is right in his sight, 
and wilt give ear to his commandments, and keep all his 
statutes, I will put none of those diseases upon thee, which 
I have brought upon the Egyptians; for I am the Lord 
that healeth thee." 

Youth is the time to learn and to commence the practice 
of moral hygiene. The fields, the waving grain and flow- 
ers, and the great trees, live pure ]ives, speak only clean 
and kind words. Observe them, for they are free from 
envy, hate, impatience, and moral unhealthfulness. 

Cheerfulness is taught by moral hygiene. It is im- 
possible to be a truly good man and not be cheerful, nor 
can a cheerful countenance naturally accompany evil 
thoughts and deeds. The commandment to "Honor thy 



INTRODUCTION 13 

father and thy mother" is followed by a promise of long 
life, and this implies that there is health and long life in 
moral actions. It is moral hygiene to practice temperance 
and moderation in thought and deed. Happiness can only 
come from doing good things. Slothfulness, idleness, ig- 
norance, unkindness, impatience, untruthfulness, and dis- 
honesty, bring unhappiness, and unhappiness breaks down 
the health. 

"Know then this truth (enough for man to know) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

Physical Hygiene. — Perfect and complete living should 
be the desire of every one. It is a duty to keep oneself 
healthy. The great educator, Horace Mann, was once 
asked as to his health. He replied: "I am ashamed to 
say I do not feel well to-day." He had probably eaten too 
much the day before, or had been intemperate in his work. 
To know what to do to preserve and improve the health 
of the body, is to have a knowledge of physical hygiene. 
The first step is to know and to understand as much as 
possible about our bodies. We must learn how we are 
made, and of what we are made. The organs of the body, 
and the vrork they do, must be familiar to us. The con- 
ditions under which they are intended to perform their 
functions must be known, and lastly, we must be wise and 
train ourselves to observe the conditions. 

In the study of hygiene we must consider the body as a 
mechanism, for, indeed, it is a mechanism that is endowed 
with that marvelous force called life. The body is of 
curious origin and history, and of remarkable complexity. 
It is the most wonderful of machines, receiving its energy 



14 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



in the form of air and food, and being very sensitive to its 
surroundings. 

A living body is in many ways like a watch. If the 
watch is in good order, running well, and keeping correct 
time, we say it is a good and normal timepiece. So, 
also, if the body is in good order, working well, produc- 
ing good thoughts and good deeds, it is a normal and 
healthy body. If it is not in good working order, if the 
functions of the various organs are not properly per- 
formed, if there is weakness, if there is pain and discom- 
fort, or if the mind is not right, we say there is illness or 
disease. Health is a normal condition; disease is an 
abnormal condition. 

The living body, like the watch, may be well or poorly 
constructed ; of good or of mean material ; it may be sound 
and without flaws, or more or less defective. The living 
body has the power of self-repair, and what we call cure 
is complying with the conditions under which nature will 
make repairs. If we learn these conditions, which are 
taught by hygiene, and are heedful of them, our bodies 
will be continually renewed, and good health will be the 
normal condition at all times. It is the decree of nature 
that all things shall change. The watch, although ex- 
cellent in material and workmanship, and although well 
cared for, will wear out. It is the same with the living 
mechanism. There is all the more reason, then, why we 
should take good care of our bodies and secure from them 
fullness of life and proper performance of duty. 

Death is as natural as birth. We should have no fear 
of death, but, rather, should fear wrong living, fear the 



INTRODUCTION 15 

possible failure of not performing our duties to God and 
to man ; and then, when we come to die, we shall be — 

"Like one that wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams." 

PHYSIOLOGY 

Physiology treats of the organs of the body and the 
work they perform. It carefully and accurately studies 
the details of the construction of the body. It follows, 
from beginning to end, the minutest nerve, muscle, and 
artery. Experiments are made; the behavior of organs, 
as the heart, lungs, and liver, is observed in health and 
disease, and thus a knowledge of them is gained. By this 
means we learn how the heart pumps the blood to all parts 
of the body. We learn, also, the conditions under which 
an organ does its best work. We learn, moreover, the kind 
of work done by the lungs, and discover what surroundings 
and what materials they must have with which to work. 
As fast as knowledge and understanding of the mechanism 
is gained, we should make it practical by applying it. In 
the following chapters, it is the aim to present enough 
regarding the structure of the various organs of the body, 
and of the work done by each to give a view of the field, 
and to make plain the reasons for the suggestions and di- 
rections on how to live. This knowledge will enable us 
to make our lives more efficient and enjoyable — lives of 
loving labor and "glad sweet song." 



CHAPTER II 

BREATHING AND AIR 

Breathing is the most important action in all life. Even 
the trees and plants breathe. We must fill our lungs with 
air and empty them about twenty times a minute in order 
to live. If we stop breathing for one minute, we feel 
oppressed and dizzy; if for two minutes, we become un- 
conscious ; and, if for four or five minutes, we should cer- 
tainly die unless vigorous means were taken to start our 
breathing again. We are, therefore, deeply interested in 
this process of breathing. 

WHY WE BREATHE 

The object of breathing is to purify the blood. When 
fresh air enters the lungs, some of the oxygen, or life-sus- 
taining gas it contains, is taken up by little tubes, called 
capillaries, which contain blood. At the same time, from 
the blood in these capillaries, there passes into the air in 
the lungs a gas called carbon dioxide, together with a 
very ^mall amount of waste matter, which is the worn-out 
material of the body. All of this happens almost in- 
stantly, and then follows expiration, which is breathing 
out to empty the lungs. Inspiration is breathing in, or 

16 



kJ 






BEEATHING AND AIR 17 

filling the lungs. So necessary for life is the immediate 
removal of the waste matters of the body brought to the 
lungs by the blood, that we grow sick if the breathing 
stops even for a minute. This is because the waste mat- 
ter, which is gathered by the blood in its course through 
the body, is poison. The air that we breathe out contains 
this poison, which, if not removed, would soon kill us, and 
therefore air which has been even once breathed is itself 
poisonous. This explains why we have headaches, and 
become dull, when the air in a room has been breathed, 
and fresh air is not supplied by ventilation. 

HOW WE BEEATHE 

In order to understand how we breathe, it is necessary 
to understand the machinery of breathing, and the struc- 
ture of the lungs and breathing tubes. The cavity back 
of the nose, together with the mouth cavity, called the 
oral cavity, is connected with two tubes. One of these 
tubes, the esophagus, is a pipe to convey food and drink 
from the mouth to the stomach; the other pipe, the 
windpipe, or trachea, is the one we shall consider now, for 
it is through this pipe that the air passes from the nostrils 
to the lungs. 

Trachea. — The windpipe is a tube about four and one- 
half inches long, and from three-quarters of an inch to 
an inch in diameter. It is constructed of rings of tough 
cartilage, or gristle, piled one on top of the other, and held 
together by a strong tissue, or membrane. A man's 
trachea, like his hands and feet, is always larger than that 
of a woman. 



18 LIFE WITH HEALTH 






Bronchial Tubes. — At the lower end of the trachea are 
two smaller tubes leading one to the right and the other 
to the left. These are called the bronchi, or bronchial 
tubes, and they connect the trachea with that wonderful 
arrangement of millions of cells called the lungs. The 
bronchial tubes divide and subdivide, growing smaller and 
smaller until some of them are so small that one would be 
completely filled by a very fine thread. Each subdivision 
ends in one of the tiny cells, sacs, or air vesicles, of the 
lungs. 

Lungs. — The walls of these 
air cells are as thin as tissue 
paper, but, unlike tissue paper, 
are very tough and elastic. It 
is through these thin cell walls 
that the oxygen in the air 
passes into the blood, and 
FI( , M , ,. 0F through them, also, the waste 

the lung. gases, which the blood has 

a, small bronchial tube ; b, ° 

terminal of tube ; c, air sacs. gathered from all parts of the 
body, pass into the air in the lungs and thence into the 
outer air. 

The lungs are covered with a smooth, moist membrane 
called the pleura, which protects them. When the pleura 
becomes inflamed, we are said to have pleurisy. Pleurisy 
may also be the result of breathing foul air. 

Diaphragm. — The lungs may be looked upon as two 
bags hanging in the cavity of the chest, or thorax, some- 
times called the thoracic cavity. The right lung has three 
divisions, or lobes, and the left has two; both rest on the 




BREATHING AND AIR 



19 




diaphragm, which is a broad band of tough muscle form- 
ing a partition between the thoracic cavity and the ab- 
dominal, or stomach cavity. The 
diaphragm bows upward, but flat- 
tens out at each inspiration. 

When we inspire, or breathe in, 
the lungs swell until they meet the 
walls formed by the ribs, which, 
obedient to the action of the muscles 
used in breathing, expand to make 
room. These muscles then contract, 
as do also the elastic walls of the 
lung cells; this contraction expels 
the air and is called expiration. In 
this process the arch of the dia- 
phragm is first bent downward by 
the expanding lungs in inspiration; 
when expiration begins, the arch returns to its former po- 
sition. It is the combined action of the muscles of 
the chest, the muscles of the diaphragm, and the elastic 
walls of the lung cells, like rods and bands pulling 
and pushing, which makes us breathe. The process goes 
on without our thinking about it, and is therefore in- 
voluntary. We can, if we wish, stop the action of the 
muscles, that is, we can at will hold out breath, but 
when the will ceases to act, the work goes on as be- 
fore. 

A man sitting still, or walking slowly, breathes about 
twenty times a minute. If he runs, he must breathe 
faster. This is because, in running, the muscles and all 



Fig. 2. — Diagram 
Showing Position 
of Diaphragm. 
a, at end of expira- 
tion ; b, at end of in- 
spiration. 



20 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



the other tissues of the body wear out faster, and more 
air is needed to carry off the waste. 

CORRECT BREATHING 

On its way to the lungs, the air should always enter 
the trachea through the nose. The nostrils warm and 
properly moisten the air as it passes through them, and 
by means of thousands of little flesh hairs which line 
them, they also purify the air, straining out dust and 
microbes. This is important, for these particles of dirt 
are most injurious to the lungs. It may readily be seen 
that if we habitually breathe through the mouth, a great 
deal of unfiltered air will pass into the lungs, for the 

mouth and throat are 
not provided with the 
means of straining 
out the impurities, as 
the nostrils are. 

Whenever people 
snore in their sleep, 
they are breathing 
through their mouths. 
It is sometimes pos- 
sible to overcome the 
habit of snoring by 
placing a bandage 
under the chin and 
tying it on the top of 
the head. This holds 
the mouth closed and 




Fig. 3. — Showing Air Passages and 
Adjacent Parts. 

a, nasal cavity ; b, tongue ; c, mouth ; 
d, pharynx ; e, larynx ; f, trachea ; g, 
esophagus ; h, i, jawbone ; j, soft palate ; 
l, adenoid growths, encroaching upon the 
Eustachian tube, k. 



compels the breath to pass through the nose. 



BKEATHING AND AIE 21 

Nose Tumors. — Sometimes growing children have little 
tumors in their noses, called adenoid growths. Such chil- 
dren hold their mouths open all the time, their voices have 
a more or less choked sound, and they do not hear well. 
They are "mouth breathers," as the doctors say. In con- 
sequence of this breathing through the mouth, they are 
not strong and healthy and of good color like other chil- 
dren. Any skillful physician can quickly, and almost 
painlessly, remove adenoid tumors, and they rarely return. 
Children with adenoids cannot study well, nor can they 
think well. 

WHAT WE BREATHE 

Composition of Air. — We shall now make a brief study 
of the air, which is our first and foremost necessity. The 
air of cities is not as pure as mountain or country air, so 
we take the composition of the mountain air as our guide. 
It is composed mainly of two gases in the following pro- 
portion : 

Nitrogen 79% 

Oxygen 21% 

Even country air is found to contain a very little carbon 
dioxide, and in the cities, air contains, besides, several gases 
which are products of the burning of coal, such as am- 
monia, sulphurous acid, and nitric acid. Of course, these 
are present in small quantity, but they have a marked in- 
fluence upon health. City air also contains more dust and 
more disease germs than country air. The greater purity 
of country air is one of the first reasons why, in the coun- 
try, sickness and death rates are lower than in the cities. 



22 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

In most cities, there are Fresh Air Missions conducted by 
charitable men and women, who search out sick mothers 
and sick children in the summer-time, and take them out 
into the country away from the impure air of the city. 
It is astonishing how fast these sick people improve. The 
change is due principally to the pure air. Pure fresh air 
is the greatest known medicine, good for all diseases. 

There is a great difference in the air before and after 
it has been breathed. In each breath the inspired air loses 
twenty per cent, or one-fifth, of its life-giving oxygen, and 
poisonous matter is added. The following table shows the 
change : 

Inspired Air. Expired Air. 

Oxygen 20.96% 16.03% 

Nitrogen 79.00% 79.00% 

Carbon dioxide 0.04% 3.97% 

Organic matter 0.00% 1.00% 

100.00% 100.00% 

Exhaled air has an odor. This is caused by the organic, 
or waste matter, it has absorbed from the body while in 
the lungs, and it is this organic matter that makes a room 
seem stuffy when the ventilation is bad. To rebreathe 
such air injures the lung tissues. There is not enough 
oxygen in it to purify the blood, and the unpurified blood 
goes back from the lungs through the body unable to take 
up any more waste matter. When this waste matter is 
left in the flesh, muscles, brain, and other parts of the 
body, they are injured. The foul air that does such great 
harm to the whole body first shows its effect in dullness, 
sleepiness, and headache. 

When the tone and strength of the lung cells, the wind- 



BKEATHING AND AIR 23 

pipe, the bronchial tubes, and the pleura, have been low- 
ered by breathing bad air, the minute disease germs, or 
microbes, of cold, catarrh, influenza, pneumonia, and con- 
sumption have an opportunity to grow. It is thus we 
acquire diseases of the respiratory system. One seldom 
"catches cold" in the open air, but rather in the house. 
Those who live in the open air do not have colds or pneu- 
monia or consumption. These are known as house dis- 
eases, and the best cure for the sick person is to live in 
the open air. Indeed, the only known cure for consump- 
tion is not medicines, but continuous outdoor life, night 
and day. 

Night air is purer than day air. It does not contain so 
many microbes nor so much smoke, dust, or carbon di- 
oxide, as day air. The old notion that night air is un- 
wholesome should be discarded. The chill of the night, if 
we are not warmly dressed, is what causes illness. 

There is also error in the general idea that draughts of 
air are injurious. Unless we are warm and perspiring, a 
draught brings no harm. If, however, we are warm and 
perspiring, then a draught cools the skin too rapidly, clos- 
ing up the pores and preventing their action. The shock 
lowers resistance, that is, it partly stops the healthy action 
of the skin. Then, again, the microbes of cold, influenza, 
and the like, have opportunity to grow and cause disease. 

A person who is warmly dressed may ride all day in a 
buggy with draughts striking him, but he will not catch 
cold. It may make him chilly and stiff, and if he then 
goes into a house and huddles over a stove, he is likely to 
catch cold. He should bring back warmth and glow to 



24 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

the skin by exercising. And, if he has been out in the 
rain and his clothes are wet, he should remove the wet 
garments, sponge himself with cold water, and rub with a 
rough towel. Then, if he puts on dry clothes and sits 
down in a well ventilated room, he will not catch cold. 
Soldiers get wet and cold, and dry themselves by an out- 
door fire, or perhaps their clothes are dried solely by the 
heat of the body ; but colds and lung disorders seldom affect 
them. It is the outdoor life which keeps them from tak- 
ing colds. Soldiers suffer more from other disorders than 
from either bullets or lung diseases. 

Dust. — Consumption and other lung troubles are more 
likely to result from dusty air than from cold air. In 
spite of the filtering out of impurities by the little hairs 
of the nostrils, some dust gets into the lungs and can do 
much harm. Many illnesses, that were formerly explained 
in other ways, are now understood as the result of breath- 
ing in microbes and poisonous particles of dust. "Grind- 
ers' consumption" is a term used in connection with cases 
of consumption occurring among tool grinders. They 
breathe a great deal of dust which arises from the emery 
wheels used in sharpening tools, and this, together with 
the bad air of the unventilated shops, irritates the air 
passages, making it possible for the consumption microbes 
to grow and cause the disease. 

The dust of cities and towns is more likely to produce 
disease than the dust of the country. This is because in a 
city there are more people in a given area, and the dust 
is more likely to become infected from spitting, and in 
other ways. By "infection" is here meant the addition of 



BREATHING AND AIR 25 

dried disease germs to ordinary dust. In many cities, it is 
contrary to law to spit on the sidewalks, in railway sta- 
tions, in street cars, or, indeed, anywhere except in gut- 
ters. This is right, for through spitting, the germs which 
cause diseases of the breathing system are distributed. 
Besides this, it is a habit never formed by persons of refine- 
ment and good manners. 

It has already been said that the health of people living 
in cities is not so good as that of people living in the coun- 
try. The reason is that country people have more space 
to live in, more and better air to breathe; therefore, they 
meet with fewer disease-causing microbes. If all country 
people would build their houses at least three feet from 
the ground to keep out dampness and ground air, if they 
would all thoroughly ventilate their bedrooms at night and 
their living rooms in the daytime, sickness, even in the 
country, would be very much less than it is now. 

Ground air is the name given to the air which fills the 
spaces, or pores, in the ground. It is very unwholesome, 
and has an earthy, musty odor, which we can smell after 
rains in houses which are built flat upon the ground. 
Dwelling houses should always be built on foundations 
which raise them at least three feet above the ground, and 
the space between the ground and the floor of the house 
should be well ventilated. This prevents the unwholesome 
ground air from being forced up into the house when the 
rains soak down into the ground. Such houses would 
also be dry, and damp houses are unhealthful. There are 
several real advantages in building dwelling houses at 
least three feet above the ground and ventilating well 



26 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

the space beneath the floor. They will be free from damp- 
ness, and there will be no ground air; they will last 
longer, and look better, in addition to being altogether 
more healthful. 

BREATHING EXERCISES 

Everyone knows that we must exercise in order to keep 
well. The muscles become strong from exercise, and in 
the same way full breathing makes the lungs strong. The 
following are good examples of simple breathing exercises 
such as all children should be taught. 

First, stand straight, chest out and head erect, hands at 
the sides with heels together and toes pointing outward. 
Now close the mouth and slowly take a deep inspiration 
through the nose, expanding the chest to its fullest capac- 
ity; at the same time raise the arms until they extend 
straight out from the shoulders. Hold the breath long 
enough to count three, then breathe out while returning 
the arms to the sides, expiring somewhat more rapidly 
than when inspiring. Eepeat three times. 

The second exercise is like the first, except that the up- 
ward movement of the arms is continued until the hands 
meet over the head. 

In the third exercise the arms are extended in front, 
with the palms of the hands touching each other. Now 
move them outward and commence to draw in the breath; 
by the time the hands touch behind the back the lungs 
should be full. Hold the breath again long enough to 
count three, and then expel the breath as the arms are 
moved forward to the first position. Eepeat three times. 

Still another breathing exercise is of especial benefit to 



BKEATHING AND AIR 27 

those who stoop or whose shoulders bend forward. Stand 
as straight as possible, hands on the hips, with thumbs 
toward the front; then bend backward as far as possible, 
drawing in the breath at the same time. The breath is 
expelled when moving forward. All of these breathing 
exercises should be practiced at least twice a day by all 
school children. The best place to do this is in the open 
air; if the practice is indoors, the windows should be wide 
open. 

VENTILATION 

Ventilation is simply the bringing of air into a house 
and then taking it out again, but there are right and 
wrong ways of doing this simple thing. It is hygiene that 
teaches us why we must breathe pure air and how much 
we need, and it is sanitation which teaches us how to 
ventilate our buildings, so that pure air in sufficient 
amount may be secured. 

The air in schoolrooms should be changed at least four 
times every hour, and every pupil should have not less 
than 180 cubic feet of space. If the length, breadth, and 
height in feet of the schoolroom are multiplied together, 
and the product is divided by the number of pupils in the 
room, the quotient should be 180 or more; otherwise each 
pupil has not sufficient space or air for good health. 
Crowded schoolrooms always cause more or less illness. 
It is impossible, in cold weather, to ventilate a school- 
room properly by windows and doors. If we try to intro- 
duce air through windows and doors in the winter time, 
the room becomes cold and draughty. This interferes 



28 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

with study and recitation, just as the bad air does, and 
both conditions cause sickness. 

Every schoolroom should have a pipe, or duct, in the 
wall to bring in fresh air, and a second duct to take out 
the impure air. If these ventilating pipes are not prac- 
ticable, and the room is heated by a stove, it is still possi- 
ble, with care and judgment, to secure a fair amount 
of fresh air. During recess the windows should be opened 
and every child should remain out of doors. If it is rain- 
ing at recess time, then, with the windows open, the 
breathing exercises already described should be practiced. 
When windows must be used for ventilation, it is a good 
plan to place a board five or six inches wide, and as long 
as the window is wide, under the lower sash, so that the 
cold air comes in through the space between the two 
sashes, is forced upward into the room, and does not reach 
the pupils until it becomes warmed. 

If the room is heated by means of a stove it should have 
a sheet iron jacket around it. This will direct the heat 
upward and cause it to diffuse more evenly through the 
room. A jacket around the stove will also protect near-by 
pupils, keeping them from being overheated. 

HEATING OF SCHOOLROOMS 

Heating and ventilation belong together. The fact that 
hot air is lighter than cold air is taken advantage of in 
heating schoolrooms. A furnace, which is a large stove 
surrounded by either a brick or an iron jacket, is placed 
in the basement, and from the space between the stove 
and the jacket, pipes lead to the schoolroom. There is also 



BREATHING AND AIR 29 

a large pipe connecting this space with the outside air. 
The cold fresh air enters by this pipe, called the cold air- 
pipe, passes over the hot surface of the stove, and so 
heated passes upward through the hot air pipes into the 
room. By this method the air which warms the room, 
though hot, is fresh, pure air. The objections to stoves 
in a room are, that they heat much of the same air over 
and over, and that the school is disturbed when fuel it put 
on the fire. 

Experience, however, proves that schoolhouses which 
have more than eight rooms cannot be successfully heated 
and ventilated by furnaces. A better system for a large 
schoolhouse is the fan or forced system. This requires an 
engine or motor of some kind in the basement to propel a 
circular steel fan, which forces pure air from outside over 
hot steam coils and then through pipes into the school- 
rooms. 

If a schoolroom is heated by radiators in the room, there 
should be back of each radiator an opening in the wall 
to the outer air. This opening will bring in fresh air, 
which, as it passes over the radiator, will be warmed. 
Ventilating engineers and architects call this "direct- 
indirect heating." They call it "direct heating" if a room 
is heated by stoves or by radiators which have no opening 
in the wall to the outer air. This subject will be discussed 
more fully in the chapter on ventilation. 

MOISTURE 

Finally, it is important that there should be a certain 
amount of moisture in the air we breathe. If the air is 



30 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

dry and hot, it takes moisture from the nose passages, 
from the throat, and from the lungs. This is uncomfort- 
able and may cause disease. The air of schoolrooms may 
be kept moist by water pans in the furnaces in the base- 
ment, and all modern furnaces are so supplied. It is an 
easy matter to keep pans filled with water on the tops of 
stoves, and thus keep the air moist. This matter is fre- 
quently neglected because its advantage is not understood, 
but neither it nor any other help to good air should be 
forgotten. The first thing that all of us do is to breathe, 
and only as long as we breathe are we alive, so it is truly 
necessary to consider how important to our welfare good 
air and correct breathing really are. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. Why do we breathe? 

2. Describe the process of breathing. 

3. How does the air reach the blood to purify it? 

4. Why should we breathe through the nose instead of the 
mouth? 

5. What is air? 

6. Why should not the same air be breathed more than once? 

7. What makes a room smell 6l close' ' and "stuffy"? 

8. Is it easier to catch cold indoors or outdoors? Why? 

9. How does good ventilation help us in breathing? 



CHAPTER III 
THE SKELETON 

The skeleton is made of hard bones. It acts as a frame- 
work on which the flesh and muscles of the body are sup- 
ported, and serves also as an armor, or protection, for the 
heart, the kidneys, the lungs, and other organs. If a 
man had no skeleton, he could neither walk nor run; he 
would be as shapeless as a jellyfish, which has no bones. 
As long as a jellyfish remains in water, its body is sup- 
ported by the water, but when it is thrown on land, it be- 
comes a quivering, shapeless mass. A man's body would 
be just as limp except for the two hundred and six bones 
in his skeleton. 

These bones are all neatly joined together, and each 
has its exact place. If even the smallest bone slips out of 
place, or gets out of joint, as we say, pain and swelling ap- 
pear, and the bone has to be put back into place, usually a 
very painful proceeding. The skeleton is divided into four 
main parts, the skull, the trunk, the arms, and the legs. 

THE SKULL 

There are twenty-eight bones in the head, counting 
three small ones in the cavity of each ear. The eight bones 
that are called the skull bones are curved bony plates, 

31 



32 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



fitted together to make the round shape of the top and 
back of the head, and to protect the brains, which are held 
as if in a box or cup. 

The face has fourteen bones. The 
shape of some of them may be felt 
by the fingers, and, to some extent, 
may be seen. 

THE TRUNK 



In the trunk, or body, there are 
fifty-four bones, distributed as fol- 
lows: twenty-four ribs, one breast- 
bone, two hip bones forming the 
pelvis, the backbone, or spinal col- 
umn, composed of twenty-six parts, 
called vertebrae, and a small bone in 
the throat just above the "Adam's 
apple." 

THE ARMS 



In each arm there are thirty-two 
bones. The five largest ones are 
above the wrist; the collar bone, or 
clavicle, connecting the shoulder 
with the sternum, or breastbone; 
the shoulder blade, or scapula; the 
humerus, or bone of the upper arm, 
and the two bones of the lower arm, 
fig. 4.— the skeleton. t h e u i na an( j the radius. The ad- 
vantage of having two bones in the lower arm is plain, 
if the right arm is placed on the desk with the palm of 



THE SKELETON 



33 



the hand down, and the hand is then turned over until 
the back of it touches the desk. The movements of the 
two bones can be felt by the left hand, and they show how 
this arrangement makes it possible to 
turn the hand in any direction. 

Each hand contains twen- 
ty-seven small bones, of 
which eight are in the wrist, 
five in the palm, and four- 
teen in the fingers. 

THE LEGS 

There are thirty-two bones 
in each leg, including the 
foot. First, there is the 
thigh bone, or femur, which 
is the largest bone in the 
body, and extends from the 
hip joint to the knee. Then 
there are two bones in the 
lower leg, the tibia and the fibula, corre- 
sponding to the two in the lower arm. The 
kneecap, or patella, covers the knee. There 
are also six little bones in the ankle, one heel 
bone, five bones in the instep, and fourteen bones in the 
toes. The foot contains twenty-six bones, and the hand 
twenty-seven. 




Fig. 5. — Bones 
of the Left 
Forearm. 
a, ulna ; b, ra- 
dius ; c, part 
which, helps to 
form the wrist 
joint ; d, parts 
which help to 
form elbow 
joint. 



Fig. 6. — The 

Femur, or 

Thigh 

Bone. 

a, head ; b, 

shaft ; c, part 

of bone which 

helps to form 

kneejoint. 



COMPOSITION OF THE BONES 

If a bone is burned in an iron pan, there will be left a 



34 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 




Fig. 7. — Section of Bone Mag- 
nified. 



white powder, called lone ash. This is the mineral matter, 

or hard part, of the bone. 

The soft substance of the 
bone that holds this bone ash, 
or mineral matter, together is 
called ossein. It is this sub- 
stance that makes the peculiar 
smell when bones are burned, 
and it has so much strength 
and elasticity that if boiled 
for a long time in water it be- 
comes glue. Ossein forms about 
one-eighth of the bone, and is 
what is burned away when the 

bone is burned. On the other hand, if a 

bone is placed in vinegar, or any acetic 

acid, for a day or two and then examined, 

it will be found that the vinegar has dis- 
solved out the ash, or mineral matter, and 

only the ossein remains. The stiffness is 

gone and you can tie the bone in a knot. 

It is soft and elastic. Children's bones 

are softer and more elastic than the bones 

of old people, because they contain more 

ossein. 

When a bone is boiled, grease appears 

on the water. This grease, or fat, was in 

the center, or hollow part, of the bone, and 

is called marrow. Marrow is a very important substance, 

for it helps to nourish the bone and to keep it alive. The 

bones are so constructed as to furnish great strength com- 




FlG. 8. — B ONE 

Tied in a 
Knot. 



THE SKELETON 35 

bined with lightness. These two qualities are secured by 
their hollow construction. 

THE COVERING OF THE BONES 

Periosteum*. — The bones are covered with a tough, 
strong skin, or membrane, which is called the periosteum. 
It covers every part of the bones except the joints, which 
are protected by cartilage. The periosteum contains blood- 
vessels, through which the bones are nourished. The 
muscles, which enable us to move our skeleton, are attached 




Fig. 9. — Showing the Bones of the Hand and Wrist. 
a, wrist-bones ; b, bones of the palm ; c, bones forming the finger ; 
d, base ; e, shaft ; f, head ; g, bones which articulate with the radius ; 
h, thumb. 

to the periosteum. If by any accident the periosteum is 
removed, the bone will die, but if a bone is broken, or re- 
moved because of disease, it will grow again if the perios- 
teum is not injured. 



36 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

Cartilage. — Cartilage, which is sometimes called gristle, 
is found between the joints. It acts as a cushion, or pad, 
to prevent the hard ends of the bone from grinding against 
each other. If it were not for the cushions of cartilage the 
joints would wear and be painful. Cartilage can always 
be found on a boiled beef-bone, or on the end of a spare- 
rib. It is very tough, and, even if cooked, cannot be eaten 
as meat can. 

QUESTIONS FOE -REVIEW 

1. What is the use of the skeleton? 

2. How many main divisions of the bones are there? How 
many bones in all? 

3. What is the largest bone in the body? 

4. Why is the skull round? 

5. Why is the hand made up of small bones? 

6. What two kinds of substances can be found in bones? 

7. How may each be found? 

8. How are the bones covered and protected? 



THE SKELETON 37 



THE BONES 

HEAD 

Skull: Frontal, temporal, parietal, occipital, sphenoid, eth- 
moid. 

Face: Superior maxilla?, nasal, malar, lachrymal, turbinated, 
palate, vomer, inferior maxilla?. 

Ears: Malleus, stapes, incus. 

The hyoid tone, at the base of the tongue. 

BODY 

Cervical vertebra?, true, false and floating ribs, thoracic ver- 
tebra?, sternum, lumbar vertebra?, innominata, sacrum, coccyx. 

UPPER EXTREMITIES 

Clavicle, scapula, humerus, radius, ulna, carpal, metacarpal, 
phalanges. 

LOWER EXTREMITIES 

Femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsal, metatarsal, phalanges. 



CHAPTER IV 

ORGANS, TISSUES, CELLS 

By the word organ we understand any special part of 
the body which has a particular work to do. The stomach 
is an organ of digestion; the eye is the organ of sight. 
The kidneys, lungs, heart, liver, and spleen are all organs 
of the body, and are all composed of tissues, which are 
built up of cells. 

THE TISSUES 

Every one knows what liver looks like. Its color and 
general appearance when once known enable us always to 
tell liver from any other kind of matter. Liver material 
is called liver tissue. Muscle material cannot be mistaken 
for other material ; it is called muscle tissue. So it is with 
skin tissue, lung tissue, brain tissue, bone tissue. Each 
tissue has an appearance and structure of its own. Lay 
side by side thin small pieces of dried beef, chicken meat, 
ham, and beefsteak, and notice how the tissue of each dif- 
fers from that of the others. 

THE CELLS 



If we place a very thin slice of liver or any other kind 
of tissue under a microscope, we shall see that it is com- 

38 



OKGANS, TISSUE, CELLS 39 

posed of countless tiny divisions, or cells. Just as houses 
are made up of rooms, so tissues are made up of cells. Cut 
an orange in half and, on the cut surface, observe the big 
cells which hold pulp and juice. Orange cells are very- 
large; the cells of our tissues, however, are so very small 
that it is necessary to have a microscope to see them. No- 
tice that each orange cell is formed by walls of thin tissue, 
and remember that even this thin tissue is itself com- 
posed of cells. 

The cells of liver tissue have a form and appearance of 
their own, and so have the cells of muscle tissue, skin 
tissue, or any other kind. Some are round, some flat and 
thin, some are almost square; others have many sides, and 
all shapes and sizes may be found. 

Growth of Cells. — Exercise of any kind, such as run- 
ning, playing, or working, wears out the cells of the tis- 
sues, but in health they are immediately built up again. 
The cells in heart and lung tissues are wearing out all the 
time, for the heart and lungs work almost unceasingly. The 
only rest these organs get is to work less rapidly when we 
sit down, lie down, or sleep. To starve to death is to have 
our tissues waste away cell by cell for lack of food to build 
them up. Sometimes infants and very old people starve 
when there is no lack of food, simply because their stom- 
achs, and other organs that build up the body, do not work 
properly. When cells are used up, they are cast out of the 
body by the skin, lungs, kidneys, and intestines. So new 
cells are constantly being constructed in our bodies to 
replace old ones. 



40 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

PROTOPLASM 

Inside of the cells is a material called protoplasm, or 
sometimes, bioplasm. Bioplasm means life material. Each 
cell has also what looks like another little cell inside it. 
These are called nuclei. One such speck in a cell is called 
a nucleus. Sometimes the nucleus contains a speck in it, 
and this is called a nucleolus, or little nucleus. 

The bioplasm is a very curi- 
ous material. It is largely 
water, but contains little 
grains, and is thick like cream. 
Sometimes there are found 
granules, or grains, in the 
cells, little drops of oil, and 
little particles which have 

^uSr^S-ifg"!^ colOT > and are called V^rnent, 
Cells - or coloring, bodies. Bioplasm 

is alive, for it moves and is constantly undergoing change. 

If the nucleus of a cell disappears, the bioplasm dies. This 

fact leads us to believe that the nucleus is the center which 

directs or controls the cell. 

CELL ACTIVITY 

It is the activity, or constant working, of the cells which 
causes every organ to do its special work. The liver cells 
are being torn down and new ones built up all the time, 
and in this way they do the special work which belongs 
to the liver. This is true of the muscles, nerves, heart, 
kidneys, brain, and all the other organs. 

What makes the cells work ? Why are they so constantly 










OKGANS, TISSUE, CELLS 41 

changing? This change and work is called cell life. We 
say it is an energy, a force. We do not know what elec- 
tricity really is ; we say that too is energy, or a force. We 
know a great deal about the way it works — that is, we see 
how it manifests itself — but what it is, no man knows. It 
is the same with life energy. 

HEALTH AND DISEASE 

When all the organs and their cells do their appointed 
work on time and properly the result is health. But the 
organs and their cells are very sensitive and delicate. It 
is only under certain conditions that they perform their 
tasks well. For instance, it is the work of the lungs by 
taking in oxygen to turn blue, or impure, blood into good 
red blood. Give the lungs plenty of pure, fresh air, and 
they will do their full" duty. If, however, we are in an 
unventilated room, and by remaining there deny the lungs 
the good, fresh air they should have, then they not only 
fail to turn the blue blood into red blood, but the lungs 
themselves become discouraged, as it were, and may be- 
come diseased. This happens also if we keep the windows 
of our bedrooms closed at night, and lie hour after hour 
breathing our own breath over and over. 

Another example of an organ that must be treated well 
is the stomach. It works well provided we send down to 
it fresh and well prepared food, which has been thoroughly 
masticated, or chewed. It should not be overloaded with 
food, nor too much water taken into it at mealtime. These 
conditions must be met; if they are not, the cells of the 
stomach lose energy, and we suffer. 



42 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

If we abuse our lungs with foul air, and at the same 
time abuse our stomachs by overloading them, we are cer- 
tain to be sick. Persistence in this wrongdoing, moreover, 
will finally make these organs permanently sick — that is, 
they will become diseased — and then we shall find time to 
think how foolish we have been. These are only instances, 
for other organs can also become diseased by mistreat- 
ment. 

Disease, then, is the opposite of health. We must in 
some way violate the laws of health to be made sick or 
become diseased. A proper attention to the laws of health 
will keep our tissues in good condition, so that the cells 
may be promptly renewed, and the organs enabled to carry 
on their special duties, which make and keep us well. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. Name two important organs of the body, and tell their 
functions. 

2. Of what are the organs built? 

3. What is a cell? How large is it? What shape has it? 

4. How do cells perform their work? 

5. What is protoplasm? What is the other name for it? 

6. What does " nucleus' ' mean? Where can nuclei be 
found besides in the protoplasm? 

7. What different kinds of tissues can you name? 

8. What is meant by the term " energy' ' as used in con- 
nection with cells? 

9. What is disease? How may it be avoided? 

10. What is necessary to keep the lungs healthy? The stom- 
ach healthy? 



CHAPTEE V 

MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND MOVEMENTS 

THE MUSCLES 

Our muscles are wrapped around our bodies in a very 
interesting way. Besides being organs of motion, they give 
the body form. Except in disease they are of a deep red 
color. They make up the lean meat, or flesh, of animals. 
All the motions of the body are effected through our 
muscles. They bind the bony frame together, and they 
cover nerves, bloodvessels, and cavities. The muscles of 
the heart, by extending and contracting, make it beat; 
and in the same way the muscles controlling the lungs 
make them expand to draw in air and contract to expel 
air. The muscles of the eyes move them as we wish, and 
those of the mouth, tongue, and throat, enable us to speak. 

KINDS OF MUSCLES 

Some muscles, such as those of the heart and stomach, 
work without being told by the mind. They are called 
involuntary muscles. 

Other muscles, like those which move the organs of 
speech, and those which control the action of the legs and 
arms, do so only when they are told to by the mind. Such 
are called voluntary muscles. 

The voluntary muscles are most of them attached to the 

43 



44 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



bones, and the involuntary to such organs as the heart, 
stomach and intestines. 

COMPOSITION OF THE MUSCLES 

The voluntary muscles are made up of bundles of fibers, 
nicely wrapped in a peculiar membrane, or tissue. The 
smallest fibers are finer than the finest silk thread. These 
small bundles of fibers are again bound together to make 
larger bundles. If we pick to pieces a bit of cotton string, 
it will be found to be made up of a great number of little 
fibers. And if a piece of dried beef is soaked in water for 
an hour or two, and then it is picked to pieces with a pin, 
it will also prove to be composed of small fibers. 

Involuntary muscles are made up of flattened bands of 
fibers, or of long fibers of a pale color. Each fiber con- 






Fig. 11. — Cells Which Form Muscle Fibers and Liver Tissue, 
a, liver cells; b, muscle cells (involuntary) ; c, muscle cells (volun- 
tary) ; d, cells of heart muscle. 

tains a nucleus, which is rod-shaped. This kind of muscle 

forms the muscular coat of the stomach and intestines. 

A considerable proportion, usually about three-fourths, 

of the total weight of muscle is water. The remaining one- 






MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND MOVEMENTS 



45 



fourth is composed of a lime-like substance called calcium 
phosphate and a strange substance called myosin. Myosin 
is also called muscle-plasma. Shortly after death animal 




Fig. 12. — Showing the Muscles of the Back. 



bodies become very stiff. This is caused by the myosin, 
which coagulates — that is, becomes solid and hard. 

HOW MUSCLES WORK 



Muscles have the power of shortening and again length- 
ening themselves. They are elastic and pliable. If the 



46 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



arm is drawn up so as to touch the chin, the outside arm 
muscles are lengthened, and, at the same time, the inside 
ones are shortened. In this they are obeying the com- 
mand of the brain, which has sent a message to them by 
the nerves. We find also that the 
muscles will jerk if irritated, as oc- 
curs when the flesh is pricked by a 
pin. We do not fully understand 
how the muscles are able to move so 
quickly and so wonderfully, so we 
say the movement results from a 
nerve stimulus. 

Muscles will contract suddenly 
and with force, as when we throw 
out our arms to defend ourselves, 
or they will move very gently, as 
when we do some delicate work with 
the fingers. When we walk a long 
distance we feel tired, and if we 
are not accustomed to walking we 
shall grow more or less stiff when 
we rest. This is because the muscles 
are required to do more than they 
are prepared to do, and because 
their cells are not built up as fast 
as they are worn out. 
The contortionist and the acrobat train their muscles 
to do most wonderful work. They can bend their bodies 
into strange and seemingly impossible positions, and it is 
all done by long practice in shortening and lengthening 
certain muscles as they will. 




Fig. 13. — S h o w i n g 

the Muscles of 

the Arm. 



MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND MOVEMENTS 47 

HOW MUSCLES ARE CONNECTED 

Voluntary muscles are generally fastened to the bones 
by tough inelastic tissues called tendons, or sinews. They 
are also connected with cartilages, ligamentc, skin, and 
other tissues. 

One end of every face muscle is attached to some bone 
of the head, and the other end to the skin of the face. 
This arrangement enables us to give expression to our 
faces. 

Tendons are not elastic, and so are serviceable for hold- 
ing muscles in position. In children, the tendons are 
short and the muscles long, while in adults, the muscles 
are short and the tendons long. The tendons are not 
elastic, and the muscles are very elastic ; this explains how 
a baby can roll itself into a ball, put its toe in its mouth, 
and perform many other feats which an adult cannot do. 

HOW TO KEEP THE MUSCLES HEALTHY 

To keep the muscles healthy it is necessary that they be 
exercised sufficiently. Attention, too, must be paid to 
resting them. But idle muscles waste away as well as 
overworked muscles. They must also have a proper sup- 
ply of nourishment to renew the worn-out cells, and this 
means that they must be supplied with an abundance of 
pure blood. 

THE JOINTS 

To hold our skeleton in shape, the bones must join each 
other. The bones of the skull have saw-like edges, which 



48 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



fit each other like dovetail joints, and make the bones im- 
movable. These joints are called sutures. 





Fig. 14. — Sutures Seen from Above and the Side. 



Most of our joints, however, are movable. For instance, 
the shoulder, the elbow, the hip and the kneejoints, move 
easily in various directions. The knee and elbow joints 
are hinge joints; so are the joints of the wrists, ankles, 
fingers, and toes. 

In the illustration of the hip joint may be seen the 
knob, or head, at the upper end of the femur. This head 
is connected with the main bone by a short piece called 
the neck. Notice how the knob fits into the socket in the 
pelvis, or hip bone. This is a ball-and-socket joint, and 
moves freely in any direction. The shoulder joint is also 
a ball-and-socket joint. Study the action of the joints 
of the hand and notice the many movements of which the 
wrist and fingers are capable. Such an ingenious and 
wonderful piece of work as the human hand no man ever 
contrived. 

The skull rests and moves upon the topmost bone of the 
spinal column. This bone is named the atlas. The second 
bone of the spine is the axis, and a bone like a pivot ex- 



MUSCLES, JOINTS, AND MOVEMENTS 



49 



tends from the axis through an opening in the atlas; on 
this the head turns. This is a pivot joint. 

At every joint there 
are found strong, 
tough bands of fibrous 
tissue called liga- 
ments. These liga- 
ments, as well as 
muscles and tendons, 
hold the joints to- 
gether. The skin also 
has something to do 
with the matter. 
There is cartilage be- 
tween every two bones 
which form a movable joint, as well as a membrane secret- 
ing a fluid which lubricates or oils the joint. 




(Ball-and- 



Fig. 12. — The Hip Joint 
Socket). 

a, head of femur (ball) ; B,the socket: 
c, d, parts of hip bone ; e, neck ; f, 
shaft ; g, h, ligaments. 



MOVEMENTS 

It is wonderful how easily we move. The pivot joint 
in the neck makes it possible to turn the head. The ability 
to turn the hand palm up, then palm down, is the result, 
as has been said, of the peculiar arrangement of the two 
bones in the lower arm. The movements of the two bones 
of the lower leg are like those of the lower arm. 

If the body is bent forward and down, so that the hand 
may pick up something from the floor, all the joints of the 
spine are put in motion, in addition to the hip joints, the 
knee joints, the ankle joints, all of the joints of the feet, 
and most of the joints of the arms. Simply in doing so 



50 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

ordinary a thing as to pick up a pin from the floor, we 
use at least fifty joints and a large number of muscles. 
They all move exactly in time with each other ; the fingers 
go straight to the pin, and the thumb and forefinger do 
not act until the pin is touched. Man never did and never 
can make such a wonderful machine as he is himself. 

QUESTIONS FOB BEVIEW 

1. What is meant by a muscle? What powers has a muscle? 

2. How many kinds of muscles are there? W r hich kind con- 
trols our breathing? 

3. What are muscles made of? How do they look? 

4. Why do we feel tired and stiff after a long walk? 

5. To what are the muscles fastened? 

6. What is the difference between a muscle and a tendon? 

7. What is a joint? 

8. What is the difference between the hip joint and the 
sutures? 

9o Why do not the joints creak and rub when we move? 



CHAPTER VI 

THE BLOOD, HEART, AND CIRCULATION 

The blood has been spoken of as the nutritive fluid of 
the body, for it carries to the tissues nutritive materials 
prepared by the digestive organs. It also carries to the 
tissues oxygen, absorbed from the air in the lungs ; it car- 
ries off from the tissues all waste products; the internal 
secretions of the glands are taken up by it; and it plays 
an important part in maintaining and keeping the tem- 
perature uniform. The blood is the only means of com- 
munication between the interior of the body and the out- 
side world. 

COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE BLOOD 

The blood, although a fluid, is really a tissue in itself. 
It is largely water, holding in solution salts, proteids, fat, 
fibrine, which is a white substance like albumen, and a red 
coloring matter called haemoglobin. There float in the 
blood also great numbers of minute bodies known as blood 
corpuscles. These corpuscles can be seen only through 
a microscope. There are three different kinds: the red 
corpuscles, the white corpuscles, and the blood plates. 

When the corpuscles are removed, the fluid part of the 
blood has a slight yellowish tint. This fluid is called the 
plasma of the blood. The red color of the blood is due 

51 



52 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

to the mass of red corpuscles held in suspension in the 
plasma. 

Blood drawn from the body forms a soft jelly. Very 
soon the jelly hardens and forms a clot, and when finally 
the clot hardens still more it squeezes out a quantity of 
clear, slightly yellow fluid, to which the name blood serum 
has been given. It is the fibrine which causes the blood 
to clot. If blood is whipped with an egg beater, the 
fibrine is deposited on the wires of the beater in shreds. 

If blood did not clot, bleeding would never stop, and a 
person would bleed to death, even from the slight cut. 
When the flesh is cut, or torn, we apply pressure to the 
place by means of a bandage, and very quickly the blood 
clots, and the wound ceases to bleed. A bruise-spot, which 
appears when a sharp, hard blow is struck on the flesh, is 
due to coagulated blood under the skin. Sometimes in 
disease a blood-clot forms in a blood vessel, and may stop 
the flow of the blood to some part of the body, and cause 
the death of that part. If a clot forms in the blood vessels 
of the brain paralysis results. 

RED CORPUSCLES 

A single red corpuscle does not appear red at all, but 
has a slight amber color. In the mass, however, these 
bodies are very red. The red corpuscles are minute, 
very elastic, circular discs, without nuclei. The aver- 
age diameter of the red corpuscles in the blood of a 
man is about one-one-thousandth part of a millimeter, and 
they are, therefore, microscopic. Their minuteness can 
be better comprehended when we know that there are 






THE BLOOD, HEART, AND CIRCULATION 



53 




Fig. 16. — Blood as Seen 
dee the Microscope. 
a, white corpuscles ; b, 
corpuscles. 



UN- 
red 



about 5,000,000 in a very small drop of blood. Under the 

microscope most of the red corpuscles appear like piles of 

grains of corn. 

The principal task of the 
red corpuscles is to carry oxy- 
gen from the lungs to all of 
the tissues. Since there are 
many thousand millions in the 
blood of a grown person, they 
have a very great carrying sur- 
face. And because of their 
elasticity they are able to pass 
through the smallest capil- 
laries. Sometimes they are 
obliged to go in single file, 

which causes them to present all their surfaces to let loose 

the oxygen they carry. 

HAEMOGLOBIN 

Each red corpuscle is an 
organized cell, but the finer 
structure is not known. When 
fresh, red corpuscles contain 
fully 60 per cent of water. Of 
their solid part 90 per cent is 
haemoglobin which has the 
power of carrying oxygen to 
the tissues, and it does this 
through peculiar chemical 
powers of the iron it contains, 
purplish-red color, but when loaded with oxygen is a 




Fig. 17. — Crystals of Haemo- 
globin. 

Haemoglobin has a dark 



54 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

bright scarlet, and is then called oxy-licemoglobin. Oxy- 
haemoglobin is an unstable compound — that is, it gives up 
its oxygen readily to any tissue needing it. Haemoglobin 
may be readily obtained and examined in crystals. 

WHITE CORPUSCLES 

The white corpuscles are a little larger than the red 
corpuscles, but are not so numerous; and they are called 
white, because they have no coloring matter in them. 
They are independent living cells, with the power of 
movement, and live in the blood-plasma. The average 
number in healthy blood is five to seven thousand in a 
cubic millimeter. 

The white blood corpuscles are also called "wandering" 
cells. This name has been applied to them because they 
have the power to leave the blood and wander through the 
tissues. They have five duties to perform. First, they 
protect the body against bacteria that cause disease by 
digesting the disease germs. Such cells have the special 
name of phagocytes, a word which comes from two Greek 
words meaning an eating cell. A second work they do is 
to aid in the absorption of fats from the intestine. Third, 
they help in the absorption of peptones from the intestine. 
Fourth, they take part in the coagulation of blood. Fifth, 
they help to maintain the proteids in the blood-plasma. 

The wandering cells are indeed busy as bees. In ab- 
scesses there is a great fight going on between them and 
the bacteria which cause the abscess. Of course, in the 
battle both cells and bacteria are destroyed. In the dis- 
charge from abscesses these cells are found in great num- 
bers. 



THE BLOOD, HEAKT, AND CIRCULATION 55 

BLOOD PLATES 

The blood plates are smaller than the red corpuscles 
and only about one-tenth as numerous. They have the 
power of motion like the white corpuscles, but what their 
work is, is not known. 

SUMMARY 

All of the facts just stated show the blood to be a mar- 
velous tissue. It contains red and white living cells, 
fibrine, salts, serum, haemoglobin, and blood plates. It is 
the sole medium of communication between the interior 
of the body and the outside. It carries oxygen and nour- 
ishment to the tissues and removes waste products. It 
maintains the temperature, holding it uniform. It keeps 
all the joints and tissues soft and moist and in good con- 
dition. It has cells which ward off disease, is the source 
of the gastric and pancreatic juices, of the secretions of 
the intestines, of saliva, bile, tears, sweat, and of every- 
thing else in the body. 

HYGIENE OF THE BLOOD 

We must have pure blood to be healthy. This we may 
secure by being sensible about our food, selecting it with 
care, preparing it properly, and chewing it well. We 
should breathe an abundance of pure air, night and day, 
and drink pure water. We should use coffee and tea, if at 
all, only sparingly. Above all, we should never fire our 
blood with whisky, brandy, or wine. 



56 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 
THE HEAET 






The heart is a hollow, muscular organ, really a strong 
pump, which forces the blood through its many and won- 




Fig. 18. — The Heart and Large Arterial Trunks. 
a, arch of aorta ; b, superior vena cava ; c, pulmonary artery ; d, 
right auricle ; e, anterior surface ; f, right ventricle ; g, apex ; h, left 
ventricle ; i, left auricle ; k, l, m, n, arteries. 

derful channels. It is shaped somewhat like an egg, and 
is placed between the lungs. In a man the heart measures 
about five inches in length, three inches and a half in 



THE BLOOD, HEAKT, AND CIKCULATION 57 

breadth in its broadest part, and two inches and a half 
in thickness, and weighs ten or twelve ounces. It is 
placed obliquely in the chest. The broad part is di- 
rected upwards and backwards to the right; the small 
end, or apex, is directed forward and to the left. The 
heart is said to be on the left side, which is not wholly 
true. The beating movement brings the apex against 
the left wall of the chest, and gives the impression that 
the heart is located there. 

The heart is surrounded by a loose bag called the peri- 
cardium,, w T hich is fastened to the diaphragm. The lining 
of the pericardium is soft and velvety, like the lining of 
the mouth. A fluid in the pericardium keeps all the sur- 
faces soft and lubricates the heart. 

The heart is divided lengthwise by a muscular partition 
into two parts, which are called the right and left cav- 
ities. Each half is divided in turn into two cavities, the 
upper ones being called the right and left auricles, and 
the lower ones the right and left ventricles. The right 
auricle communicates with the right ventricle, and the 
left auricle with the left ventricle, but there is no direct 
connection between the opposite sides of the heart. 

THE VALVES OF THE HEART 

A pump must have valves, as well as cavities, or cham- 
bers, and the heart is no exception. There is a large valve 
between the left auricle and the left ventricle, and because 
it is shaped like a bishop's mitre, it is called the mitral 
valve. There is another valve between the right auricle 
and the right ventricle called the tricuspid valve. 



58 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

There are three valves at the mouth of the aorta, and 
three at the mouth of the pulmonary artery, called semi- 
lunar valves. These open from the heart and prevent the 
blood from flowing backward into the heart again. 







Fig. 19. — Diagram Showing Action of Valves of the Heart. 

To determine the state of health, the physician listens 
for the sounds of the heart. He places his ear on the 
chest over the region of the heart and listens carefully to 
the two sounds. In health the first sound, probably the 
closing of the mitral and tricuspid valves, is longer than 
the second. If the semilunar valves are out of order the 
second sound becomes a murmur. Any change from the 
normal sounds of lubb-dup, lubl-dup, is an indication that 
something is wrong. 

THE PULSE 

The beating, or throbbing, which occurs in all the arte- 
ries, comes from the action of the heart, and is called the 
pulse. The most convenient place -to feel the pulse is at 
the wrist. The skilled physician obtains from the pulse 
valuable information concerning the heart and the circula- 



THE BLOOD, HEAKT, AND CIKCULATION 59 

tion. When we are HI, and especially when we have fever, 
the pulse shows irregularities. The heart in a healthy 
man beats about seventy-five times a minute, and if at 
any time it varies greatly from this, disease, or at least 
excitement, exists. In early childhood, the pulse beats 
more than one hundred times a minute. 

The regularity, or rhythm, of the heart beat should be 
perfect. If the aortic valves are diseased, or insufficient, 
through sickness, the pulse wave is more prolonged than 
normal. The pulse should be neither too feeble nor too 
strong. 

THE ARTERIES 

There are two kinds of blood flowing out of the heart: 
the arterial, which is red and full of oxygen from the lungs 
and which flows out from the left side; and the venous, 
which is loaded with the waste matter from the body and 
flows from the right side to the lungs for purification. 
The vessels carrying the blood to all parts of the body are 
called arteries; those bringing it back to the heart are 
called veins. 

The largest artery in the body is the aorta. It starts 
from the left ventricle, arches to the left side, and runs 
downward to the pelvis, dividing there into two arteries, 
which supply the legs. The large arteries divide into 
smaller, and these into still smaller, until they are as small 
as fine threads, spreading to all the organs and parts of 
the body. From the arch of the aorta four branches lead 
to the upper part of the body, also dividing and subdivid- 
ing into smaller ones. 

The right auricle receives the blood brought by the 



60 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



veins. It then enters the right ventricle, and from thence 
it passes to the lungs through the pulmonary artery. This 
great artery divides into two branches like the aorta, one 
for each lung, and these divide and subdivide into unnum- 
bered branches. From the lungs the blood is sent back 
to the left auricle of the heart, through that to the left 
ventricle, and from the left ventricle out into the arteries. 

STRUCTURE OF THE ARTERIES 

The arteries are round tubes, varying in size, and are 
made of tough, elastic material. They have three coats, 



b c a 



b t a 




Fig. 20. — I. Artery and Vein, 
Longitudinal Section. 



II. 



Artery and Vein, Cross- 
Section. 



Showing the Three Coats. 

an inner one, smooth and delicate, a middle coat made up 
of muscular and elastic tissues, and a very tough and 
strong outer coat, made of fibrous, elastic, and semi-muscu- 
lar tissue. 

The small arteries have but two coats, and when the 
arteries become still smaller even the middle coat dis- 
appears, leaving only the delicate inner coat, through 



THE BLOOD, HEABT, AND CIRCULATION 61 

which the nutritious substances carried by the blood ooze 
into the surrounding cells. 

As has been said, the outer coat of the large arteries is 
strong and tough. In case of a wound where an artery 
is severed, tying very tight with a cord does not break the 
coat, which is like rubber. However, tying breaks the 
inner coats, and the broken edges cause the blood to clot 
and the bleeding to stop. 

The blood flows through the arteries very rapidly. This 
can be seen by fastening a frog near a microscope and 
tying his spread out webfoot under the lens. The arteries 
in the web are exceedingly small, 
but the blood can be seen rushing 
through them like water through a 
mill race. 

CAPILLARIES 

All of the minute arteries finally 
end in the systemic capillaries, or 
net works of tiny vessels, which per- 
vade nearly every tissue of the body. 
They are called capillaries from a 
Latin word capillus, a hair. From 
the cells the waste matter passes into 
the capillaries. Every organ and 
part of the bodv is a network of fig. 21. — diagram Show- 

A J ing Circulation 

capillaries. In the lungs the capil- 0F THE Bl °od. 

laries supply oxygen for the blood and give out the carbon 
dioxide to the air, while in the villi of the intestines they 
take up the substances fit for food. Thus the capillaries 




62 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



carry in the materials for building up the body and carry 
awav the waste materials. 




Fig. 2 2. 
A Vein, 
Showing 
Valves. 



THE VEINS 

The veins are pipes which serve to return 
the blood from the capillaries of the dif- 
ferent parts of the body to the heart. The 
veins, like the arteries, 
are good-sized tubes at 
the heart, but they divide 
and subdivide, becoming 
smaller and smaller until 
they can hardly be traced 
in their final network. 
Also, like the arteries, 

they have three coats, but they have a 

larger proportion of firm connective 

tissue and less elastic muscular fibers. 
Some veins, like those of the limbs, 

and those near the surface in the head 

and neck, have valves, which prevent a 

backward flow of blood. The veins are 

larger and very much more numerous 

than the arteries, making the capacity 

of the venous system much greater 

than that of the arterial. 

Tiny veins also enter the systemic 

capillaries, and they collect the blood 

from them, and finally return it to the 

right side of the heart to be pumped to the lungs. The 

great vein which enters the right auricle of the heart is the 







Fig. 23. — Showing 
Veins of the Leg. 



THE BLOOD, HEAKT, AND CIECULATION 63 

superior vena cava, and it receives the blood which is con- 
veyed to the heart from the whole of the upper half of 
the body. The inferior vena cava returns to the heart the 
blood from all parts of the body below the diaphragm. It 
passes close to the liver, then pierces the diaphragm, en- 
ters the pericardium, and ends in the lower and back 
part of the right auricle. 

THE PORTAL CIRCULATION 

The flow of the blood from the intestines and stomach, 
through the liver, and then through the inferior vena 
cava, is termed the portal circulation. When the blood has 
traversed the capillaries of the stomach and intestines, it is 
carried by the portal vein into the liver, and hence the 
name portal circulation. The healthy action of the diges- 
tive organs depends upon the proper activity of the portal 
circulation. 

SUMMARY 

The arterial blood, freighted with the life-giving oxygen, 
starts from the left ventricle. It passes out into the ar- 
teries through the aorta. The arteries divide, again and 
again, becoming continually smaller and smaller, until 
they terminate in the systemic capillaries. The tiny veins 
of the capillaries collect the blood unloaded into them from 
the arteries, which is now freighted with waste matter, and 
return it to the right side of the heart. The heart imme- 
diately forces it through the pulmonary artery into the 
lungs, to be made again into arterial blood. From here it 



64 LIFE WITH HEALTH 



enters the left auricle again, having completed the circuit 
of the body. 

THE LYMPHATICS AND THE LYMPH 

The lymphatics are very delicate vessels, with coats so 
transparent that the fluid contained is readily seen through 
them. They are found in nearly every organ of the body, 
with the exception of the brain, spinal cord, eyeball, nails, 
hair, cartilage, and tendons. The lymphatic vessels, like 
arteries and veins, have three coats, and also have valves. 
They carry the fats absorbed by the small intestines to 
the blood. 

Lymph is a colorless liquid found in the lymph- vessels. 
All of the tissues are bathed in lymph. The lymph pro- 
ceeds from the blood and is almost the same in chemical 
composition, except that it has no red corpuscles nor blood 
plates. As it does its work it changes in composition, just 
as the blood does, and finally returns to the blood. The 
lymph carries food to the cells, and to the blood, and 
brings back waste matters. The lymphatics of the small 
intestines are called lacteals, because there exudes from 
them a thin, white liquid, which has in some degree the 
appearance of milk. 

The thoracic duct is a great lymphatic trunk, which 
receives lymph from the legs. It also receives the food 
materials taken up from the small intestine. It lies upon 
the spinal column, and empties its contents into the 
veins of the neck. This is the main lymph duct and plays 
an important part in nutrition. 






THE BLOOD, HEAKT, AND CIBCULATION 65 

QUESTIONS FOB BEVIEW 

1. What is the blood? Of what is it composed? 

2. Describe the red corpuscles. 

3. Why is pure blood necessary for health? 

4. Describe the heart. How many divisions has it? 

5. What are the mitral valves? What other valves has the 
heart? What kind of blood passes through the mitral valves? 

6. What is meant by venous blood? by arterial blood? 

7. Where is the aorta? the pulmonary artery? the inferior 
vena cava? 

8. What is meant by the portal circulation? 

9. What is the pulse? What can be discovered by the 
pulse? 

10. What other organs have coats like the arteries? 

11. What is the pericardium? 

12. What is the lymph? 

13. What connection is there between the lungs and the 
heart? 



CHAPTER VII 
THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION 

The mouth is the first organ of digestion. As such it 
may be considered as a box containing grinding machinery, 
the teeth. The organs of swallowing are: first, the 
fauces, or back part of the mouth; then the pharynx, or 
throat: and last the gullet, or esophagus. Down a short 
distance is the stomach, which is an enlargement of the 
digestive, or alimentary tract, as all of the organs of diges- 
tion taken together are called. Beyond the stomach the 
tract becomes a long, soft tube, coiled around and around, 
called the small intestine. Finally (Fig. 24) the small 
intestine opens into the large intestine, which is not so 
long but has a greater diameter. This, too, is folded and 
coiled upon itself. 

It is plain that the alimentary tract is a tube, commenc- 
ing at the lips, and extending through the whole length 
of the body. There are other names for the alimentary 
tract, such as alimentary canal, and digestive tube. 

The tract is about thirty feet long. It is lined through- 
out its whole length with a moist, soft, reddish lining called 
mucous membrane. A look in a mirror at the open mouth 
will show the character of the lining of the alimentary 
tract. The tube is constructed of muscular tissue, in lay- 
ers, and these layers are held together by connective tissue. 

66 



THE ORGANS OF DIGESTION 



6? 



Lying adjacent to the mouth are found spongy bodies, 
called glands, which supply a digestive fluid known as 
saliva. Other like bodies are placed at several points along 
the digestive tract. There are several kinds of them, and 
they supply various digestive fluids. 




Fig. 24. — Showing Abdominal Viscera. 

a, stomach ; b, liver ; c, pancreas ; d, spleen ; e, colon cut away to 
show pancreas ; f, g, m, n, colon ; h, appendix ; i, small intestine ; 
J, duodenum ; k, bile and pancreatic ducts ; l, gall bladder. 

Glands are not confined to the digestive canal, for we 
have other glands, such as sweat glands, tear glands, and 
lymph glands. They are hollow or sponge-like organs, 
which are planted in the mucous membrane of the tract, or 
lie just outside of it, and communicate with it through 
minute tubes. Glands are made up of different kinds of 
cells, producing different secretions, but all glands are con- 
structed on one or the other of two plans, known as 



68 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



tubular and racemose. The first is simply a tube and the 
second can best be thought of as resembling a bunch of 
grapes. 




Fig. 25. — Types of Glands in the Human Body. 
a, simple tubular ; b, coiled tubular ; c, compound tubular ; d, simple 
(sac) ; e, racemose. 



THE MOUTH 

Stand before a mirror in a good light, open the mouth, 
and take a look into it. First notice how perfectly the 
lips fit and how they open and close at will. Then notice 
that the cheeks cover considerable apparatus, among which 
the tongue and teeth appear prominently. Observe how 
the tongue is fastened to the back part of the mouth, 
while beneath it is an attachment to hold it down. No- 
tice, also, how it can twist, turn, double on itself, curl 
up, and take as many positions as if it were made of rub- 
ber. 

The tongue is our tasting organ, and it also serves to 
stir and mix the food in the mouth. The tongue is a net- 
work of cells, veins, arteries, nerves, and muscles. It is 
constantly moistened with saliva, and we suffer if it be- 
comes dry. The small rough places on the tongue are 
called papilla. 



THE OEGANS OF DIGESTION 69 

The top of the mouth, which is an arch and is covered 
with rolling, rough places, is called the hard palate. Hang- 
ing from the back part of the hard palate is a soft piece 
of tissue called the soft palate, and the cavity behind the 
soft palate is the pharynx. From the middle of the soft 
palate there hangs down a cone-shaped piece of flesh called 
the uvula. On each side of the uvula are two curved 
folds of mucous membrane made of muscular fibers which 
are called arches, or pillars, of the soft palate. Back of 
the soft palate are two glands, one on each side of the 
throat, which are the tonsils. 

THE TEETH 

The teeth are important parts of the mouth. They are 
embedded and bound tightly in the jawbone, and are part- 
ly covered by the gums. The teeth truly belong to the 
organs of digestion, for they do the first work necessary 
to this process. Food should be ground to a pulp and 
mixed with the fluids of the mouth before it goes any 
farther, and the teeth are the organs for this work. 

Sound teeth are beyond any money value, because they 
promote digestion and preserve good health. We find out 
their full worth when they are lost. They have also an 
aesthetic value, filling out the lips and cheeks, and, if 
regular and clean, they add much to one's personal ap- 
pearance. 

We have two sets of teeth. One set appears in chil- 
hood and is called the temporary, or milk, teeth. They are 
twenty in number. The second teeth appear while we are 
still young, and they are more firmly fastened in the jaw. 
These teeth are larger and are the permanent teeth. 



70 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



The first of the second set of teeth to come are called 
the six-and-one-half-year molars; then come the front 
teeth, or central incisors; then the teeth next to these, 
called the lateral, or side, incisors ; then the bicuspid teeth, 
two on each side of both jaws, just behind the canines, 




Fig. 26. — Temporary Teeth. 

eight in all. By the eleventh or twelfth year the perma- 
nent canines, or eyeteeth, come, and within a year or 
two after that the second molars. Last of all come the 
wisdom teeth, from the seventeenth to the twenty-first 
year, making altogether thirty-two permanent teeth. 

The Structure of the Teeth, — Each tooth consists of 
three portions: the crown, which is outside the gum; the 
root, which is down deep in the jaw; and the neck, which 
is the part between the crown and the root. The roots 
are implanted in a layer of bone on the edge of the jaw. 
The front teeth, or incisors, are to bite through such food 
as bread, or apples; the eyeteeth, or canines, to tear 
tougher food; and the bicuspids and molars serve as grind- 
ers. Notice how the molars are adapted to grinding by 
their sharp corners and their broad, flat, irregular sur- 
faces. 

If we saw a molar tooth through lengthwise, a hollow 



THE OKGANS OF DIGESTION 



71 



cavity is found in the interior. This is the pulp cavity, 
and contains dental pulp, a soft, sensitive, porous sub- 
stance, into which a nerve enters through the small hole 
in the point of the root. There are three distinct layers 
outside this pulp in the solid part of a tooth: first, the 
tooth-hone, or dentine; second, the enamel, which covers 
the dentine, and is as hard as flint; third, the cement, 
which is a thin, hard layer on the surface of the root, or 
fang, 





Fig. 27. — Showing Incisoe, Bicuspid., and Molab Teeth, 
a, crown ; b, neck ; c, root ; d, enamel ; e, dentine ; f, pulp ; g, cement. 

The teeth are largely made up of mineral matter. Lime 
is the principal mineral, combined with phosphorus, and 
other substances. A curious substance called fluorine is 
found in the enamel, and makes it very hard. 

Hygiene of the Teeth. — The care of the teeth is of great 
importance. Every person should have a good toothbrush, 
and should carefully brush the teeth night and morning. 
If the teeth are not kept clean, they decay. After every 
meal, we should in private pick from between our teeth any 
particles of food which may have lodged there. If this is 
not done the particles of food decompose and form acids, 
which are likely to start decay in the teeth. A quill or 
wooden toothpick should be used. A pin, or anything 
made of metal, should not be used. Clear, cool water is 
best to use on the toothbrush. It is well to touch the 



72 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

brush to good soap, or to dust it with clean chalk, before 
brushing the teeth. Either of these will help to clean the 
teeth and will neutralize any acid in the mouth, which, if 
left undisturbed, will surely dissolve a small hole in the 
dentine. A tooth which loses the protection of the den- 
tine rapidly decays. 

We should not eat much candy. A little candy is good 
for us, but if we eat it in excess acids are formed, the 
teeth are injured, and digestion is interfered with. Eat 
sparingly, too, of salads and pickles. They contain vine- 
gar, and too much vinegar will dissolve the enamel on the 
teeth. If possible every person's teeth should be examined 
at least once a year by a good dentist, that he may remove 
any tartar which may have formed on them, clean them, 
and fill any cavities. 

THE SALIVARY GLANDS 

Three pairs of glands, called the salivary glands, supply 
the moisture, or saliva, to the mouth. They cannot be 
seen by simply looking into the mouth, for they are hid- 
den in the flesh. The largest salivary gland is placed near 
the ear, and weighs from half an ounce to an ounce. This 
is called the parotid gland. Its secretion is poured into 
the mouth through a tube, or duct, and is known as the 
parotid saliva. This fluid is chiefly water, but it contains 
a little mucous and some salts. 

Under the back of the tongue is, the submaxillary gland, 
which weighs about one-fourth of an ounce. It is very 
irregular in form, and its saliva is much like that of the 
parotid gland. 



THE OEGANS OF DIGESTION 



73 



Beneath the mucous membrane of the floor of the 
mouth, and immediately under the front of the tongue, is 
the sublingual gland. It is smaller than either of the 
other two, and its sal- 
iva contains, besides 
water, salts and mu- 
cous, a ferment called 
ptyalin. Ferments 
are formed by decom- 
position of different 
substances and are of 
various kinds. This 
ferment, ptyalin, 
changes starch into 
sugar almost instant- 
ly. Make the experi- 
ment of washing out 
the mouth with water, 
and then chewing a 
piece of cracker. Notice how quickly the cracker tastes 
sweet and is dissolved. This is the first step in digestion, 
and the dissolving of starch by the saliva is brought about 
by the ptyalin. 

THE PHARYNX 




Fig. 28. — Showing the Salivary 

Glands. 
a, parotid ; b, submaxillary ; c, sublin- 
gual ; d, lower jawbone ; e, tongue, r, 
hyoid bone ; g, muscle. 



The consideration of the pharynx brings us to that part 
of the alimentary canal which leads from the back part 
of the mouth. It is a sac, or bag, composed of mucous 
and muscle tissue, and is about four inches long. Seven 
openings communicate with the pharynx; two from the 



74 



LIFE # WITH HEALTH 



nose, two from the ears, one each from the mouth, the 
larynx, and the esophagus. 

THE ESOPHAGUS 

The esophagus is a tube leading from the pharynx to 
the stomach. In an adult it is about nine inches long, 
and it has three coats. The muscular layer, or coat, is 
made up of muscle-fibers running lengthwise, and others 
circling the tube. The inner layer is called the mucous 
coat, and the middle layer is the cellular coat. The cellu- 
lar coat connects the outer muscular and the inner mucous 
coats. The mucous coat is thick and of a reddish color. 
Its surface is studded with minute rough papillae, like 
those on the tongue. To keep the esophagus moist and 
lubricated there are numerous small glands along its sides, 
constantly discharging their secretions. 

THE STOMACH 




Fig. 29. — The Stomach. 



The stomach is the principal organ of digestion. It is 
a dilated, or enlarged, place in the alimentary canal. 






THE OKGANS OF DIGESTION 



75 



The small end of the stomach is toward the right side 
and the large end toward the left. The opening at the 
right, where the esophagus enters the stomach, is called 
the cardiac orifice. The opening which leads from the 
stomach is the pyloric orifice. 

Coats of the Stomach.— -The stomach consists of four 
coats, containing many bloodvessels and nerves. The 
four coats are named the serous, the muscular, the cellu- 
lar, and the mucous coat. The serous coat is on the out- 




Fig. 30. — Mucous Membrane of the Stomach, Highly Magnified, 
a, longitudinal section of glands ; b, cross-section of glands. 

side and covers all but a small part of the organ. The 
muscular coat is immediately beneath the serous and con- 
sists of three sets of fibers; one set running lengthwise, 
one around, and one diagonally. These fibers give the 
stomach strength and elasticity. 

The mucous coat is thick and has a smooth, soft, vel- 



76 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

vety surface. It covers the entire interior of the stomach. 
When the muscles contract the stomach — that is, make it 
smaller by squeezing— the mucous coat is drawn into 
ridges, which generally run lengthwise. The mucous coat 
has a pecular honeycomb appearance, owing to the fact 
that it is covered with little cells. These coats of the 
stomach, and the cellular coat which connects the muscular 
and the mucous coats, have arteries, veins, and nerves rim- 
ing through them in every direction. 

At the base of the cells in the mucous coat are the open- 
ings of minute tubes, which lead from the mucous glands. 
These glands secrete the gastric juice. In other parts of 
the honeycomb-like cells are the peptic glands, which se- 
crete peptic juice, the most important digestive fluid. 

THE SMALL INTESTINE 

The small intestine leads immediately from the stom- 
ach at the pyloric, or smaller end. It is a round, tough 
tube, about twenty-eight feet long, coiled and twisted. The 
small intestine is divided into three portions; the duod- 
enum, jejunum, and ileum. 

The duodenum is the shortest and widest part of the 
small intestine, and bends around in a remarkable way. 
The secretions of the liver and of the pancreatic gland are 
emptied into the upper part of the duodenum. The small 
intestine, like the stomach, has four coats: serous, muscu- 
lar, cellular, and mucous. 

Projecting from the mucous, or inner, coat of the small 
intestine are little flesh hairs called villi, which give a 
velvet-like appearance to the inner surface. Each one of 



THE OEGANS OF DIGESTION 



77 




these villi is a network of minute bloodvessels, contain- 
ing tiny floating cells and globules of fat. A great 
deal of food-digestion occurs in the small intestine, 
and from it, too, the digested 
food, made fit for building up 
tissues, is absorbed by the villi 
and is passed into the blood. 

THE LAEGE INTESTINE 

The large intestine extends 
from its connection with the 
small intestine to the surface 
of the body. It is about six 
feet long, and, like the small 
intestine, is divided into three 
sections. 

To the first section is at- 
tached the appendix, a narrow, 
worm-shaped tube about four 
inches long. We do not know the uses of this little organ, 
but we do know that it is very likely to become inflamed 
and to cause what is now known as appendicitis. Appendi- 
citis was called inflammation of the bowels before the 
doctors found out what the real trouble was. To cure the 
disease surgeons cut into the body and remove the appendix. 
A person so treated never has appendicitis again. Some- 
times the appendix is only slightly inflamed and gets better 
or worse from time to time, causing more or less pain, and 
materially affecting the digestive processes. When this is 
the case the person's health improves greatly if the appen- 



Fig. 31. — Tubular Glands 

from Large Intestine, 

Highly Magnified. 

a, opening ; b, connective 
tissue ; c, d, e, cells in differ- 
ent stages of forming secre- 
tion ; f, cell discharging its 
secretion ; g, cell after dis- 
charge. 



?8 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

dix is taken out. It seems, therefore, to do good to the 
body in some instances to remove this organ, just as it does 
good to remove a decayed tooth, or diseased tonsils. Ap- 
pendicitis is caused by gorging, or overeating, by too 
rapid eating, or by failure to chew food well. 

The colon is the largest and longest part of the large 
intestine. It first starts upward on the right side inside 
the cavity . called the abdomen, in which the stomach and 
intestines are held. About half way up it crosses over 
to the left side and then descends. 

The large intestine is a reservoir to contain undigested 
and indigestible parts of food, together with some waste 
matter and secretions from the digestive tract. These ac- 
cumulations should be removed daily, if the best of health 
is to be preserved. 

THE PANCREAS 

The pancreas, or pancreatic gland, is a long, narrow 
gland, back of the stomach, which secretes a thin, alkaline 
liquid, amounting daily in a man to about two fluid 
ounces. It contains three fermenting substances, called 
pancreatic juices which act upon chyme, or food that has 
gone only as far as the stomach in the process of diges- 
tion, changing it into a form fit for the villi to absorb. 
Just as soon as the chyme passes from the stomach into 
the duodenum, the pancreas commences work and dis- 
charges its juices into the mass to do their part of the 
digestive work. The juices from the pancreas have the 
power of digesting proteids, or nitrogenous foods, carbo- 
hydrates, or starch and sugar compounds, and fats. 



THE OKGANS OF DIGESTION 79 

THE LIVER 

The liver is a large organ lying directly under the 
diaphragm. It is made up of glands and plays an im- 
portant part in the general nutrition, or feeding of the 
body. A large bloodvessel, called the portal, vein brings 
to it products absorbed from the alimentary canal, and 
before they reach the general circulation these are acted 
upon b) r the liver cells. The liver of a man secretes daily 
about two and one-half ounces of bile, an important di- 
gestive fluid. 

The liver acts upon the blood in some way. The hepatic 
artery carries arterial blood, or blood from the heart, to 
the liver cells, and they make some change in it, just as 
they do with the blood from the portal vein. Then the fluid 
that results is poured into the small intestine by the bile 
duct, which opens near the duct that brings the pancreatic 
fluid. These two fluids do their part of the digestive 
work, helping the villi of the small intestine. 

QUESTIONS FOB BEVIEW 

1. Name the organs of digestion in order. 

2. How many of these are glands? What do you under- 
stand by a gland? 

3. What part does the tongue play in the digestive process? 

4. Name the kinds of salivary glands, and tell where they 
are placed. 

5. What part of digestion is done by saliva? 

6. How many permanent teeth are there? What is the 
difference between incisors and molars? 

7. Pescribe the structure of a tooth. 

8. What is the duty of the esophagus? 

9. How many coats has the stomach? Which are most im- 
portant? 



CHAPTER VIII 
DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 

We have considered the organs of digestion. Now we 
shall study the process of digestion and how digested food 
is made to nourish the body. 

In the first place, the food should be thoroughly masti- 
cated and mixed with the fluids of the mouth before it is 
swallowed. Food should not be eaten rapidly, nor moist- 
ened in the mouth with any liquid other than the saliva. 
The ptyalin should have time and opportunity to do its 
work. Overeating is quite a common mistake. It is bet- 
ter to stop before the appetite is fully satisfied. Care 
should be taken to use spices, vinegar, salads and pickles 
sparingly, because these things tend to create a false ap- 
petite. Plain foods are generally the most wholesome, and 
sunshine, fresh air, and exercise are the best tonics. It 
is well, also, to avoid eating much meat, but to depend 
upon bread, milk, eggs, peas, beans, and similar sub- 
stances for the proteids required. Some fruit, fresh or 
cooked, should be eaten at each meal. An observance of 
these directions will promote good digestion and tend to 
maintain good health. 

80 



DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 81 

STOMACH OR GASTRIC DIGESTION 

When the food has passed down the esophagus into the 
stomach, its arrival is a signal for gastric, or stomach, di- 
gestion to begin. The tubular glands in the honeycomb 
cells of the stomach walls become instantly active and 
commence to pour their pepsin fluids out on the food. 
The stomach is a willing servant, and if only a mouthful 
of food appears the glands put out enough pepsin to digest 
it and then patiently wait for more work to do. Even if 
we fail to masticate our food sufficiently, the glands and 
muscle coats of the stomach are not discouraged, but work 
all the harder. 

The changing of the food begins with the first bite, and 
when the meal is over the process continues until the 
stomach and its gastric juice have done all they can do. 
However, all the time and as fast as any portion is di- 
gested in the stomach, it passes on into the small intes- 
tine. 

The stomach digestion is an acid digestion — that is, the 
stomach juices contain acids. Gastric juice does not work 
well unless acid is present, but the stomach knows how 
much it needs and makes the proper quantity. If acid 
foods are taken regularly at the beginning of the meal the 
stomach learns to depend upon this and fails to supply the 
natural amount of acid juices. 

If during a meal much water is poured into the stom- 
ach, it dilutes the gastric juice, which, therefore, cannot 
work properly. Consequently digestion slows up until the 
water is largely absorbed. Much coffee or tea has the same 
effect in retarding digestion. The rule is to chew food 



82 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

till it is very fine and never drink water or other fluids 
during a meal, except in small quantities. Ice water 
chills the stomach and work stops until it becomes warm 
again. 

The stomach is stimulated by whisky or wine and 
works harder than is natural. It is not wise, however, 
to cause the stoamch to overwork, for it becomes ex- 
hausted and weakened by unnatural effort. The stomach 
of one who takes much alcoholic liquor soon becomes in- 
flamed. The overworked gastric cells are broken down 
and are unable to do their work properly. Sooner or 
later one who indulges much in strong drink will find 
his digestion more or less impaired. At meals and at 
other times the use of alcoholic drinks should be avoided. 
In the end they do harm, no matter how much good they 
may seem to do at first. 

The ptyalin, mixed with the food in the mouth, con- 
tinues to work on starchy substances even in the stom- 
ach, but by far the greatest work is done by the gastric 
juice, which contains pepsin. 

Very lately it has been discovered that the stomach has 
different kinds of gastric juices for different kinds of 
food. The relative quantity of juice required for different 
foods also varies. The secretion produced in the stomach 
by bread, for instance, is less in quantity than that re- 
quired for meat. 

The fats we eat, as we have learned, are not digested in 
the stomach. They are set free from other substances by 
the dissolving action of the pepsin upon proteids. Then 
they are liquefied by the heat of the body, and finally 
mixed with the chyme by the movements of the stomach. 



DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 83 

This prepares the fats for the action of the digesting ele- 
ments in the small intestine. The digestion, then, is not 
complete in the stomach. It is only partial, but the food 
not digested is prepared for final digestion in the duo- 
denum. 

DIGESTION IN THE SMALL INTESTINE 

The most important digestive changes in food occur in 
the intestines. The intestinal digestion begins in the duo- 
denum, which is the upper part of the small intestine, and 
is almost completed by the time the food arrives at the 




Fig. 32. — Section Through Wall of Small Intestines, Highly 

Magnified. 

a, mucous coat ; b, muscular coat ; c, serous coat ; d, villus ; e, con- 
nective tissue ; f, artery and veins ; g, solitary gland. 

large intestine. There are three secretions which do di- 
gestive work in the duodenum : the pancreatic juice, fur- 
nished by the pancreas; the juice furnished by the in- 
testinal glands; and the bile secreted by the liver. These 
digestive fluids are mixed with the food in the duodenum 
and all act at the same time. 

The tubular glands in the small intestine give rise to a 
liquid secretion which is called the intestinal juice. This 



84 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

is produced in large quantities, a man secreting in a day 
about two quarts. The liquid is distinctly alkaline. This 
juice contains four or five digestive agents, but we know 
very little about them. 

PANCREATIC JUICE 

The secretion of the pancreatic gland is a thin, alkaline 
liquid, almost as clear as water. It is produced in con- 
siderable quantities, a grown person secreting about two 
ounces every day. Besides a substance like common soda, 
which makes it alkaline, it contains a small amount of 
proteid, which coagulates like the white of an egg. 

The pancreas does not begin work until the acid chyme 
from the stomach enters the duodenum, for just as chew- 
ing excites the secretions of the mouth, acid excites the 
secretions of the pancreas. 

The pancreatic juice, besides having the power of com- 
pleting the acid digestion of the stomach, also has the 
power of turning starch into sugar and of digesting fats. 
Its action on the fats is to change them into a kind of 
thin soap-like substance. If a bit of fresh pancreas from 
a hog is mixed with butter, the butter changes quickly, 
for it becomes rancid, and can then be mixed with water. 
When fat is mixed with water, as cream is with milk, the 
mixture is called an emulsion. The butter, water, and 
juice from the pancreas makes an emulsion. If some soap 
or gum arabic be added, oil can be made to mix with 
water in emulsion by violently shaking them together. 
This is the way druggists make emulsions of cod liver oil. 



DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 
BILE 



85 



Bile is the digestive secretion of the liver. It is also an 
excretion, for it carries off certain waste products. Its 
work is to prepare fats finally for absorption. Bile con- 
tains a great deal of water, some salts, coloring matter, 
bile acids, fats, and several less well-known substances. 
It is formed more or less continuously in the liver, but 




Fig. 33. — The Liver as Seen from Behind. 
a, right lobe ; b, left lobe ; c, d, e, lobes ; f, gall bladder ; G, vena 
cava ; h, depression made by kidney ; g, portal vein ; k, i, hepatic ducts. 

enters the duodenum only when there is digestive work to 
do. The bile that is made when digestion is not going 
on is stored in the gall bladder. This organ pays out bile 
into the duodenum as it is needed. 

By the time the food has been acted upon by the villi, 
which absorb what will nourish the blood, it has been so 
altered that nothing remains but that part which will not 
digest, or be changed into something necessary for the 
body. This indigestible part is what is passed on into 



SQ LIFE WITH HEALTH 

the large intestine, and becomes a waste product of the 
body. Everything that is digestible has been taken out 
by some one of the digestive organs and put to some 
good use. 

ASSIMILATION 

After food is thoroughly prepared by digestion it must 
be assimilated — that is, it must be taken up by the blood 
and be carried to the cells of the body to build them up. 

In the stomach, water, salts, sugars, dextrine and prob- 
ably some digested proteids, are absorbed to some degree 
by means of the coats of the stomach. The stomach walls 
also absorb drugs or alcohol which may have been swal- 
lowed. Fats are not digested in the stomach, nor does the 
stomach absorb them. 

It is known that foods digested in the stomach, as well 
as the foods which are digested in the small intestine, are 
absorbed by the walls of the latter. By the time the mass 
enters the large intestine the products formed in digestion 
have largely disappeared. The villi lining the small in- 
testine draw out the materials fit for building up the body 
from the digested mass, pass them over by means of the 
portal vein to the liver, and after this organ has acted 
upon them, they are sent out to the blood. While absorp- 
tion is mostly effected in the small intestine, undoubtedly 
this takes place to some extent in the large intestine. The 
large intestine absorbs water freely, and this renders its 
contents less liquid than those of the small intestine. 

THE ACTION OF BACTERIA 

Bacteria are minute plants, consisting of a single cell. 
They are sometimes called ferments, for they bring about 



DIGESTION AND ASSIMILATION 87 

the process termed fermentation. When cider turns into 
vinegar, the process is called fermentation, and is caused 
by the growth in the vinegar of minute plants called vine- 
gar ferments. The kinds of ferments are so many that 
they can hardly be numbered. They are everywhere, in 
the air, in dust, on fruits, on food, and in water. They 
are in our mouths and noses, and find their way into our 
intestines, where they cause fermentation. Sometimes 
bacteria cause gas to appear in the intestines, but usually 
they are perfectly harmless; indeed, it is believed by some 
that more or less bacterial action is necessary for com- 
plete normal digestion. 

SUMMAEY 

It is interesting to trace a portion of food from the 
time it is taken into the mouth until the digestible por- 
tion becomes a part of the body. In the first place, the 
teeth masticate it thoroughly, and the tongue mixes it with 
the saliva, which begins the chemical change by dissolving 
the starch in the food into a form of sugar. Then the 
mouthful is passed down the esophagus, the circular 
muscles relaxing in front of it, and contracting behind it, 
until it reaches the stomach. In the stomach the gastric 
juice begins its work, which is mainly to change the 
proteids into more soluble form. Through the walls of 
the stomach some of this nutritive matter is taken into 
the blood. 

So far thPfats are not changed, but when the food is 
passed from the stomach into the small intestine, their 
turn comes. The intestinal juice, the bile from the liver, 



88 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

and most of all, the pancreatic juice, change the fat into 
such a nutritive form that it too can be absorbed into the 
system. The pancreatic juice also works on such pro- 
teids and starches as have escaped the other digestive 
fluids. Through the walls of the small intestine most of 
the remaining nourishment is absorbed. Water is ab- 
sorbed by the large intestine. All the nutritive proteids, 
carbohydrates, and fats that the blood can carry have been 
absorbed and go to build up the various tissues of the 
body. 

QUESTIONS FOB BEVIEW 

1. Name the different digestive fluids, tell which organ se- 
cretes each, and on what kind of food each has an effect. 

2. Which is the most important organ of digestion? of as- 
similation? Explain why. 

3. What is the effect of alcohol on the stomach? 

4. What are bacteria? Do they play any part in digestion? 

5. Trace the course of a mouthful of food until it is fully 
assimilated. 






CHAPTER IX 

ELIMINATION 

The kidneys, skin, lungs, and bowels are eliminative 
organs. They throw out the waste matters of the body. 
If the worn-out matter is not cast out, it becomes poison 
to the system, and the sure result is sickness of one kind 
or another, and, unless the poison is removed, health can- 
not be restored. 

THE SKIN 

The skin is the outside tissue of the body. It protects 
the deeper tissues and is an important absorbing and 
eliminating organ. It consists of two layers, the dermis, 
or true skin, and the epidermis, also called the cuticle, or 
outside skin. Hair and nails are modified forms of the 
epidermis. 

The Dermis. — The dermis is tough and flexible and 
consists of fibrous tissue, bloodvessels, lymph vessels, and 
nerves. The fibrous tissue forms the framework of the 
skin. The dermis, or cutis, has two layers, the surface, 
or papillary layer, and the corium. The papillary layer 
is so called from its numerous small, very sensitive points, 
the papillae, which form the organs of touch. The papillae 
are cone-shaped points blunted on top and connected by 

89 



90 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

their base with the surface of the corium. The papillae 
are numerous on the palm of the hands and sole of the 
feet, and at the finger ends, hence the great sensitiveness 
of touch on these surfaces. The sensitive nerve filaments 
are on the surface of the dermis, and deep in its tissues 
are the sweat glands, the sebacious glands, which secrete a 
kind of oil, and the roots, or follicles, of the hair. 

The Epidermis. — The epidermis, or, as it is sometimes 
called, the scarf skin, is composed of a layer of minute 
cells or scales, perfectly fitted on the dermis. It varies 
in thickness in different parts of the body, and is a pro- 
tective covering to the true skin. On the palms of the 
hands and the soles of the feet the cuticle is thick, hard, 
and of a horny texture. If we closely study the cuticle 
on the palms of our hands, we notice a network of lines 
marking out the surface into areas of different forms. 
Some of the lines or furrows are large and deep and some 
are faint. Upon the backs of the hands they are exceed- 
ingly fine, and cross each other in different directions. 
The color of the skin is due to the presence of coloring 
matter, pigment, in the cells of the cuticle, and of the 
dermis. The skin is supplied with arteries, veins, and 
lymphatic vessels the same as other living tissues of the 
body. 

Nails. — Strange to say the nails and hair are modifica- 
tions of the cuticle. Callous places on the hands, caused 
by pressure and friction in doing hard work, are made 
of material very much like nail material. The nails 
grow by new cells forming at the root and under the 
surface. The extreme end of the nail is composed of dead 



ELIMINATION 91 

cells, and, hence, may be cut without causing pain or 
bleeding. 

The Hair. — A hair is a slender thread composed of 
epidermis material. It grows on a special papilla placed 
at the bottom of a little pit. The little pit is called a 
hair follicle. Hairs are found on nearly every part of the 
body surface excepting the palms of the hands and soles 
of the feet. They vary a great deal in length, thickness 
and color in different parts of the body, and in the dif- 
ferent races of mankind. The hairs grow long and thick 
on top of the head. They are very stiff on the eyelids, 
and are soft and usually curl on the eyebrows. 

The root of a hair has a bulb. It is white in color and 
softer than the hair itself. The hair shaft is the portion 
projecting from the surface of the skin. 

GLANDS OF THE SKIN 

The sebaceous glands are small sacs in the substance of 
the corium. They are found in most parts of the skin, 
and are most abundant in the scalp and face, but are 
not found in the palms of the hands or soles of the feet. 
These glands secrete an oily substance, which is discharged 
through the hair follicle upon the surface of the skin, for 
the purpose of keeping the hair and skin soft and moist. 
On the nose and face the sebaceous glands are large, and 
often become further enlarged by the sebaceous matter 
becoming hard and distending them. Dirt gathers at the 
mouth of the gland over the sebaceous matter and makes 
what are called blackheads. A little pressure will force 
out the contents, leaving a pit, which soon fills up again. 



92 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



The sweat glands are the organs which give off sweat 
and gaseous materials. They are found in almost every 
part of the skin, and are placed in little pits in the deep 
parts of the corium. There is generally some fat, adipose 
tissue, around the sweat glands. 

There are over 2,500 sweat glands on a square inch of 
the skin in the palms of the hands. In the skin on the 







Fig. 34. — Vertical Section of the Skin, Highly Magnified. 

neck and back the sweat glands are less numerous, only 
about 400 to the square inch. In the whole body surface 
there are over 2,300,000 sweat glands. 

Figure 34 shows a highly magnified section through 
the skin. It shows a wonderful arrangement of glands, 
nerves and tissues. On the surface is the outer skin, the 



ELIMINATION 93 

epidermis (a), and just below it is the true skin, the 
dermis (b), with still beneath that, the fatty tissue (c). 
The dermis is filled with arteries (d), veins (e), sweat 
glands (?,g), oil glands (m, N, s), and all are held to- 
gether by the connective tissue (h, i). Besides, there are 
the hairs growing in the skin. The different parts of a 
hair (l) are clearly shown in the figure, the root and 
covering (0, p, q). Then there is a wonderful little muscle 
(k) attached to the root of the hair, which has the power 
of making the hair stand up straight on the skin. This 
muscle acts in case of fright, or when the skin becomes 
cold, (r) shows a papilla of the skin containing many 
arteries and veins, and (j) shows a nerve end, where the 
sense of touch is located. 

The perspiration, or sweat, is a transparent, colorless 
liquid, having a peculiar odor and salty taste. The 
amount of perspiration given off varies with the tempera- 
ture and our activity. If we run or work hard the glands 
act freely, even in cold weather. In fever the sweat glands 
usually do not act. A grown man ordinarily perspires 
in a day about twenty-five ounces of sweat. When at hard 
work the amount may reach eighty ounces, about five 
pints. If the sweat evaporates as rapidly as it forms, it 
is called insensible perspiration, and if it stands out on 
the skin, it is termed sensible perspiration. Very much 
more passes off in the insensible form than in the sen- 
sible. Our skin feels sticky and uncomfortable if the 
weather is warm and the air humid. This is because the 
moist air does not take up the perspiration, and it remains 
in the skin. 

In uraemic poisoning, when the kidneys do not act 



94 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

properly and carry off the poisonous urea, the skin may 
be made to do the work by causing it to sweat, which 
may be accomplished in various ways. The sweat ordi- 
narily has a little urea in it. 

The sweat also helps to keep the temperature of the 
body normal. On a hot day, or when we exercise freely, 
the glands pour out large quantities of sweat. As this 
evaporates on the skin heat is carried off and the body is 
cooled and kept at the proper temperature. 

Dogs and oxen have no sweat glands. Dogs pant and 
in that way their mouths and tongues do the usual work 
of sweat glands. 

SKIN DISEASES 

There are a great many diseases of the skin. Acne, a 
common skin disease, is an eruption of the skin in the 
form of little red pimples, or papules, which may be many 
or few and are principally on the face. Sometimes there ■ 
is considerable redness or skin inflammation in severe cases 
of acne. Indigestion and bad nutrition probably cause the 
eruptions. Lack of cleanliness is not a factor in causing 
acne, for its papules occur principally on the face, which 
is constantly being washed, but acne is evidence that 
proper food and slow eating with thorough chewing of 
food has much to do with the hygiene of the skin. 

Ringworm is a contagious disease of the skin. It is 
caused by a vegetable parasite, and lack of cleanliness has 
much to do with its development. It is usually com- 
municated by using towels, hairbrushes and combs which 
other persons having the disease have used. 



ELIMINATION 95 

Eczema is a very common and distressing disease of 
the skin. Exactly what causes eczema is not known. The 
disease always causes itching, and there is generally in- 
flammation or redness of the skin. The skin weeps; that 
is, moisture, which is not sweat, forms, and the skin scales 
off. Some persons are more likely than others to have 
eczema. This is due, perhaps, to an inherent quality of 
their skin. The causes of eczema may be in a person's 
blood or the disease may be developed by the way in 
which one lives, but it is not contagious and is not the 
result of uncleanliness. 

Itch is caused by the itch insect which burrows into the 
skin and causes inflammation. Uncleanliness opens the 
way for the itch insect to get into the skin. 

Dermatitis is an inflammation of the skin, due to the 
direct influence of temperature, chemicals in contact with 
it, friction, or drugs taken internally. Sunburn is a form 
of dermatitis, and so is frostbite. 

Chapped skin is caused by the wind and exposure to 
cold. When the hands are not well dried after washing 
them, and they are exposed to the wind, the skin chaps; 
that is, it becomes hard and dry and may crack open. It 
is sometimes quite painful. Chapped skin may be cured 
quickly by cleaning the skin with soft warm water, and 
good soap, and applying fresh mutton tallow, vaseline, or 
glycerine and water with a few drops of carbolic acid in it. 

Bathing has already been spoken of, but now, with the 



96 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

increased knowledge of the construction and work of the 
skin, we can better understand its importance. 

The secretion of the sebaceous glands and the solid, 
sticky residue left by the evaporation of the perspiration, 
form a coating over the pores of the skin, and seals them 
up. This stops their work, and the health suffers. Men 
have died from having the pores of the skin sealed up by 
tar, applied by mobs as a punishment. 

Extensive burns over considerable skin surface are very 
serious, because the pores are destroyed. In such instances 
pieces of skin from other persons, or even frog skin, is 
grafted on. Our health is sure to be impaired unless the 
pores are kept open, and the way to do it is to bathe 
frequently. It is true some persons rarely, if ever, bathe 
and seem not to be injured, but close observation shows 
that they are not only offensive to sight and smell, but 
their general health is not good. 

Apart from the duty of every one to be clean for 
decency's sake, there is attendant upon bathing the reward 
of increased vigor, better nutrition, better health and 
greater immunity from certain diseases, especially skin 
diseases. 

THE HAIR 

Care of the Hair. — The hygiene of the hair is also 
important. By using infected hair brushes we introduce 
dandruff, the disease which causes baldness. It is unwise 
to use the comb and brush of another, for, besides dan- 
druff, other diseases may be communicated to the scalp 
in this way. The comb and brush should always be kept 
clean. The scalp needs to be clean as well as other parts 






ELIMINATION 



97 



of the body. The sebaceous glands secrete oily matter to 
keep the hair soft, and when dust from the air settles in 
the hair it is held by the oil and the scalp becomes dirty, 
and its pores are stopped up. A good wash for the scalp 
and hair is made by putting the yolk of an egg, a little 
good, mild soap, or a small amount of borax, in clear 
water, preferably soft water. After the application of the 
egg yolk or soap, the hair should be well rinsed with fresh 
soft water, and then dried. If the hair is hard and harsh, 
it would be well to rub into the scalp a little vaseline or a 
little of a mixture made of equal parts of glycerine and 
rosewater. 





Fig. 35. — The Right-Kidney,, as Seen from Behind ; also, the Left- 
Kidney Opened Lengthwise to Show Tubes 
which Collect Urea. 

THE KIDNEYS 

The kidneys are two glandular organs of a peculiar 
shape, situated at the back part of the abdominal cavity, 
which, it will be remembered, is the cavity below the 



98 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



diaphragm, and contains the stomach, liver and intestines. 
The right kidney is a little lower than the left, to make 
room for the liver. 

The kidneys are usually surrounded by a considerable 
quantity of fat, and are held in their position by the 
vessels which pass to and from them. In a man each 
kidney is about four inches in length, two inches in 
breadth, and about one inch in thickness, the left one 
being a little longer and thinner than the right. The 
weight is about five ounces. 

Each kidney is covered by a capsule, or sac of mem- 
brane, composed of tough fibrous tissue. This capsule is 
thin and very smooth, and may be easily removed. The 
kidneys are well supplied with blood vessels, nerves, and 
lymphatics. The interior portion is composed of minute 
tubes, embedded in connective tissue, and arranged in 
the form of pjrramids. These tubes open at the points 
of the pyramids, into a cavity known as the pelvis. This 
cavity is connected with the bladder by a long duct called 
the ureter. 



THE WORK OF THE KIDNEYS 

A very great deal of blood passes through the kidneys; 
their secretion varies with the quantity of blood. In a 
minute's time an amount of blood equal to its own weight 
will flow through a kidney. This is from four to nineteen 
times as much as the average supply of any other organ, 
except the heart. The kidneys absorb from the blood, 
water, salts, and a waste substance named urea, and 
through the bladder these substances are cast out of the 
body. Urea is made in the body by the action of oxygen 



ELIMINATION 99 

upon proteid material. If not thrown out of the body 
promptly it becomes exceedingly poisonous, causing uremia 
'poisoning. 

Indigestion, severe cold, and certain other diseases inter- 
fere with the work of the kidneys, and thus do great harm 
by causing the body to absorb its own poisonous products. 
This is called auto-intoxication, or self-poisoning. Simi- 
larly, when the bowels do not act properly, we suffer from 
self-poisoning. 

The lungs have already been described and their func- 
tions given, and it is only necessary here to emphasize 
their importance as eliminative organs. It will be remem- 
bered that we can not stop breathing for more than five 
minutes and live. This is because we must have oxygen 
in a continuous stream, and because the carbon dioxide 
found in the body must be immediately eliminated. The 
lungs are the most important of the organs of elimination 
for we quickly die if they cease to work. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. Name the organs of elimination. 

2. Describe the structure of the skin. 

3. Name and explain the uses of the glands of the skin. 

4. Explain the importance of frequent bathing. 

5. Name some diseases of the skin, and, when possible, ex- 
plain the causes of each. 

6. Give directions for the care of the hair. 

7. Describe the kidney, and explain its function. 

8. How do the lungs act as organs of elimination? 

LOFC. 



CHAPTER X 
THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM 

Besides networks of arteries, veins, and lymphatic ves- 
sels, and winding and twisting muscles, our bodies have a 
network of nerves. The nerves are everywhere in the 
body. A prick with the finest needle, in any part of the 
body, will be felt by the nerves, because there is not a 
point in the skin which is not supplied with them. All 
the processes of the body, such as digestion, circulation, 
breathing, nutrition, elimination, motion, hearing, tast- 
ing, and feeling are made possible by the nerves. Both 
animals and vegetables have circulation, digestion, absorp- 
tion, and breathing, or respiration; but only animals, in- 
cluding man, have consciousness, will power, voluntary 
motion, sight, and hearing, all made possible through the 
nervous system. 

Man is superior to all other animals because his nervous 
system is of a higher order; that is, his nerves are more 
numerous, of finer fiber, and more delicately adjusted. 

THE WORK OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

Each cell and each organ of the body has its own 
special structure, properties, and uses. In health all work 
together in beautiful harmony and co-operation, each 
doing its work promptly and regularly. If we run, more 

100 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 101 

blood is needed for the tissues, and the heart immediately 
commences to beat faster to supply it. If an object 
approaches the eye, and touches the eyelashes, though not 
seen, the muscles of the lid will instantly contract and 
close the lid over the eye for protection. If the fingers 
touch a hot object, the muscles of the arm, although they 
are not hurt, will snatch the hand away. When food 
enters the stomach, the gastric cells pour their juice upon 
it, and the process of digestion begins. All of this co- 
operation is made possible by the nervous system. 

The muscles and other organs have no special mind of 
their own, but all are controlled and directed by the cen- 
tral authority, through the nerves. 

DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

The nervous system has two divisions, the cerebrospinal 
and the sympathetic. The brain and the spinal cord, and 
the nerves connected with them, and the ganglia seated 
upon these nerves, compose the cerebro-spinal division. It 
includes all the nervous organs with which the functions 
of the mind are connected, namely: all the nerves that 
supply the brain with sense impressions, and all those that 
produce muscular action which is controlled by the mind. 

The sympathetic system, also called the ganglionic sys- 
tem, is less immediately connected with the mind. It is 
more concerned with such processes as digestion, breath- 
ing, the actions of the kidneys, which are all termed the 
processes of organic life, and which go on without our 
conscious knowledge. The sympathetic system consists 
of a chain of ganglia, or knots of nerve tissue, connected 



102 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



by nerve cords, which are placed along the spinal column 
and from which develop other nerves with ganglia. 



NERVE TISSUE 




Fig. 36. — A Nerve Cell, Highly 
Magnified, 
a, cell body; b, nucleus; c, 
nerve fibre. 



the exterior of the spinal 



There are two kinds of 
nerve tissue made up of 
nerve fibers and cells, name- 
ly, the white and the gray. 
These differ from each other 
not only in color, but in 
composition, structure, and 
mode of action. 

The white matter consti- 
tutes the larger part of the 
whole system. It composes 
the larger part of the in- 
terior of the brain, and is 
found in large quantity on 
cord. It is made up of 



minute, delicate threads, not over one two-thousandth 
of an inch in diameter. Under the microscope the fibers 
of nerve matter look like soft threads of glass, but tiny 
as they are, they are, nevertheless, composed of three lay- 
ers. The outside layer is a thin, transparent sheath or 
cover, called the primitive sheath; next to this cover is a 
fat-like substance named the medullary sheath; and in the 
center is a core, or heart, called the axis cylinder. Along 
the fiber at short intervals are found nuclei. The nerves 
are made up of nerve fibers, and the function of nerves is 
to carry nervous impressions, just as telegraph wires carry 
currents of electricity. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 103 

The gray matter is so called because of its color. It 
differs from the white matter in being a mass of cells 
instead of fibers. It forms the external layer and part of 
the inner substance of the brain. It also constitutes the 





Fig. 37. — Nerve Fibers, Cut Crosswise and Lengthwise, Highly 
Magnified. 

center of the spinal cord, and the ganglia, or knots, of 
the cord. 

The ganglia, or nerve centers, are groups of nerve cells, 
differing in size, shape, character and number of branches, 
but are much alike in appearance. They are independent, 
but connected with each other> with the spinal cord, and 
with the nerves. They are much smaller than the brain, 
and of less complex structure, and their work is to receive 
impressions from the nerves, and to pass these impressions 
on from one cell to another. 

THE SPINAL CORD 

The spinal cord is the great and wonderful nerve which 
fills the center of the spinal column. Its length is from 
sixteen to eighteen inches, and its weight about one and 
one-half ounces. The spinal cord is really an extension 



104 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



of the brain, and its construction is highly complex. A 
transverse section shows it to consist of both white and 




Fig. 38. — Diagbam of Cebebbo-Spinal System. 



gray nerve substance. The white matter is on the exterior, 
and constitutes the greater portion; it consists of fibers 









THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM 



105 



running around/ lengthwise, and obliquely, well supplied 
with blood vessels and held together by connective tissue. 
The gray substance, which is in the center, consists of 
small nerve fibers, nerve cells of various shapes and sizes, 
blood vessels, and connective tissues. 



Fig 




Cross Section of Spixal Cord. 



a, gray nerve matter : b, white nerve matter 
E, f, median fissure ; g, central canal. 



c, d, nerve roots ; 



The spinal cord is so delicate and of so much im- 
portance that it is carefully protected by thick bones on 
every side. These bones move slightly upon each other. 
A broken backbone is always very serious, for, if the per- 
son does not die, he is almost certain to be paralyzed, 
owing to the injury to the spinal cord. 

The spinal cord is the pathway to and from the brain. 
Innumerable fibers bring impulses to the cord, and 
through the cord the impulses are carried to the brain. 
On the other hand, impulses of the brain are conducted 
downward through the cord to all parts of the body. 
There are, therefore, ascending and descending paths in 
the cord. Pleasurable and painful impulses pass up and 
down this great highway, with impulses of command and 



106 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



sensations innumerable. Through it, by way of the brain, 
the mind receives information and reports from all parts 
of the body, and through it the commands of the mind 
are carried to the various muscles. In some cases, as will 
be learned later, the attention of the mind is not needed, 
the nervous system doing all the work. 

THE BRAIN. 

The brain lies in the skull, and is incompletely sepa- 
rated by grooves and fissures into right and left halves. 




Fig. 40. — Side View of the Brain. 
a, cerebrum ; b, cerebellum ; c, medulla oblongata. 

Its substance is a peculiar, soft, grayish white tissue. It is 
enveloped by supporting membranes, and is composed, like 
the spinal cord, of white and gray matter. Injury to the 
brain substance does not give pain. 

The three main divisions of the brain are known as the 
cerebrum,, or forebrain; the cerebellum, or hindbrain, 
and the medulla oblongata, or spinal bulb. 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 107 

The cerebrum is much larger than the other two put 
together and overlaps them. It consists of two large 
masses called the central hemispheres. The surfaces of 
these hemispheres are curved and rolling, forming convo- 
lutions, or folds, and the two are separated by deep depres- 
sions called fissures. In the lower animals the cerebral- 
hemispheres are not large, and the convolutions are not 
numerous or deep. 

The cerebrum is the workroom of the mind. With it 
we do our thinking. It is the center of our intellect, will, 
and moral power, and it directs and controls the body. 
In it reason, judgment, and memory do their work. The 
brain, like other organs, develops and becomes strong 
through proper exercise and work. 

The cerebellum lies back of and below the cerebrum. 
It is very much smaller than the forebrain, and the sur- 
face is grooved, not convoluted. 

The work of the cerebellum is to regulate the move- 
ments of the voluntary muscles. If the cerebellum is 
injured or diseased, the muscles do not co-ordinate; that 
is, they do not move in harmony, and the person staggers 
as he walks. In the drunkard, alcohol affects the cere- 
bellum and makes the gait unsteady. 

The medulla oblongata, or spinal bulb, is located just 
below the cerebellum, and is the part which joins the brain 
proper with the spinal cord. The work of the medulla 
oblongata is to control the involuntary processes such as 
respiration, digestion, circulation of the blood, and the 
secretion of saliva and sweat. It has much the same 
arrangement of white and gray matter as the spinal cord. 



108 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

Nerve fibers run through it to and from the cerebrum. 
The cranial nerves, or nerves of the head, start from the 
under surface of the medulla oblongata, while fibers from 
the cerebellum enter it. 

The medulla is placed deep in the skull where it can 
hardly be injured, and, as it controls the beating of the 




Fig. 41. — Section Through Brain, 
a, cerebrum ; b, cerebellum ; c, medulla. 

heart and the breathing, it is possible for a person to be 
struck on the head and knocked senseless, while the heart 
and lungs keep right on with their work. Instant death, 
however, follows any marked injury to the medulla. Some- 
times in diving head first from a considerable height, boys 
strike their heads on the water in such a way as to dislo- 
cate the atlas, or topmost bone of the spine. This is a 
fatal accident, for it breaks the neck and crushes the 
medulla. 



THE NEBVOUS SYSTEM 109 

THE SIZE AND WEIGHT OF THE BRAIN 

The size and weight of the brain appear to have some 
relation to the intellectual capacity of the individual; 
that is, great men usually have large and heavy brains. 
Of all the animals, only the elephant and whale have 
heavier brains than human beings, but in these instances 
the weight of man's brain, in proportion to the weight of 
his body, is much greater than that of the animals named. 
The quality of the brain matter is of great importance, 
however, for the brains of some really great people have 
been found to be comparatively small. The grooves and 
ridges called convolutions, in number and depth, may have 
some relation to intellectuality. In young children, the 
brain is soft and imperfectly developed, and the convolu- 
tions are in the process of forming. Their mental powers 
are not strong, but, as they grow and learn and think, the 
convolutions increase, and the power to think is developed. 

THE CRANIAL NERVES 

The cranial nerves are twelve in number, generally 
spoken of as twelve pairs, and start from some part of 
the cerebro-spinal center, passing through openings in 
the base of the skull. We shall consider briefly only two 
of these pairs of nerves, the fifth and tenth. 

The fifth pair of nerves, trifacial, are the sensitive 
nerves of the face and sides of the head. Each pair has 
three main trunks. They divide and subdivide into 
branches and reach all parts of the face and the sides of 
the head. When we know there are so many nerves in the 



110 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

face, there is no wonder that some persons have headache 
and neuralgia when they do not take proper care of them- 
selves. 

The facial nerve moves all the muscles of the face. 
Through it we smile, laugh, show apprehension, fear, 
anger, joy, and all of the expressions of the face. Actors 
have wonderful control over their faces through their 
facial nerves. Twitchings of the face are due to a dis- 
eased or injured condition of this nerve. 

The pneumogastric nerves, the tenth pair, have a very 
extensive distribution, indeed, greater than any other of 
the cranial nerves. The organs of speech and respiration 
are supplied with motor and sensory impulses by this pair 
of nerves; and they also supply motor force to the stomach, 
esophagus, and pharynx. 

The pneumogastric nerve is so immediately connected 
with the stomach, lungs, and heart that an over-full 
stomach is sure to affect breathing and the heart beat. 
Indigestion is very likely to make the heart irregular, and 
this frequently leads the sufferer to think he has heart 
disease. Shortness of breath is common after a hearty 
meal. 

Sensory nerves carry impressions such as perception of 
heat and cold, hardness, softness, and the like to the brain 
to be recognized. The sensations are carried by the sen- 
sory nerve fibers to the sensory roots of the spinal nerves, 
and by these roots to the gray matter of the spinal cord, 
and then to the cerebrum. A person may hold his hand 
on a hot stove, and it may be consumed, yet there will be 
no pain if the sensory nerves are severed. It is a curious 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



111 



fact that when a sensory nerve is injured, pain is not felt 
at the point of injury, but is felt at the ends of the nerve 
filaments. This makes plain why, when the ulnar bone, 
which is called the "funny bone/' of the elbow, is struck, 
the pain is felt in the outer side of the hand and the 
little finger. This is because the filaments of the nerve 




Fig. 42. — Diagram Illustrating the Arrangement of the Nerve 
Fibers of the Brain. 

a, gray matter ; b, cerebellum ; c, medulla ; d, fibers running from 
the brain to the spinal cord ; e, fibers which connect different convolu- 
tions of the brain. 



connected with the ulna bone end where the sensation is 
located. If the arm "goes to sleep" when we lie upon it, 
the reason is that the pressure upon the nerve has cut off 
the force of the nervous current. When the arm goes to 
sleep, attempts to move it are without effect for a moment, 



112 LIFE! WITH HEALTH 

because a short time is necessary to regain its working 
power. 

REFLEX ACTION 

If every movement of the body had to be willed each 
time, the burden upon the thinking brain would be too 
great to bear; hence, it is relieved by re-flex action, or 
unconscious nerve action. We learn to play the piano by 
practicing upon the instrument. At first, the fingers move 
slowly, and attention must be kept upon the work, but 
gradually they learn to move faster and faster, and, in 
time, they strike the right keys with exact time and force, 
and the tune is mastered. The same thing occurs in 
walking. In the beginning the child toddles and holds 
out its hands to steady itself, but soon it learns how, and 
eventually it walks without seeming thought of the mas- 
ter. We can chew and swallow without thinking about 
it, and we become so accustomed to writing that we do not 
have to think of the forms of the letters. This work is 
all done by the reflex action of the nervous system. Such 
life processes as respiration, the circulation of the blood, 
at least during sleep, would be impossible if the thinking 
brain was required to attend to the matter. 

NERVE HABITS 

It is clear from what has just been said that the nerves 
form habits; for many actions, at first performed slowly 
and with difficulty, such as walking or playing the piano, 
become easy and are executed without difficulty. It is 
difficult to learn to ride the bicycle, because every move- 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 113 

ment must be dictated from the brain, but with a little 
practice the habit is formed, and the act is performed 
without thinking about it. 

A habit, then, is the result of training nerves to act 
without the aid of attention. 

HYGIENE OF THE NERVES 

Many persons complain of being "nervous." They are 
easily excited, irritable, have sick headache, are easily 
tired out. Evidently their nerves are in an unhealthy 
condition. Why and how did they become so? It takes 
a great deal of abuse to shatter and break down the 
nerves, but wrong living will do it in time. A simple, 
plain, and regular life has not been led. Excitement has 
been sought when quiet was needed, and rich and indi- 
gestible foods have been eaten; there has not been enough 
pure air and sunlight, or in some way the balance has 
been disturbed. The use of alcohol or other drugs, and 
the abuse of coffee and tea, will, sooner or later, break the 
nervous system. There is no greater enemy to the nerves 
than alcohol. A drink of whisky produces a feeling 
which some persons enjoy, but it is followed by depression 
and injury. Temperance, plain living, plenty of sunshine 
and out-door air will prevent, and may even cure, nervous- 
ness. 

MENTAL HYGIENE 

There is a mental hygiene as well as a nerve l^giene. 
As shown, the nerves form habits. Every thought and 
feeling is accompanied by a change in the nervous system. 
We should, therefore, form the habit of thinking good 



114 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

thoughts. We should think of beautiful and pleasant 
things as much as possible, and try to be cheerful. We 
should not allow ourselves to become impatient, or to 
scold > or to be uncharitable. Indeed, we would not allow 
ourselves to think bad thoughts or permit feelings of 
anger or revenge to rise if we stopped to think and tried 
to understand. No one loses patience or becomes angry 
with an insane person. This is because we understand 
the situation. We know the insane man is afflicted, and 
no matter what his acts, we pity him. We can only feel 
kindly and charitably toward him. In a like manner we 
should try to understand the acts of others, and impress 
upon our nerve centers the habit of thinking kindly. We 
should cultivate habits of self-control, calmness, patience, 
and self-reliance. It is these qualities that make men 
great and good. 

If a young person yields to the inclination to do a 
wrong thing it is easier to do it next time, because the 
nerves tend to repeat the things they have done. If he 
continues to yield, he is lost. The nerves form bad habits 
as easily as they do good habits. We should, therefore, be 
careful and wise, and use our nerves and our body to our 
advantage. We should not simply seek for happiness and 
success, but rather do good work, be industrious, . practice 
strict integrity, do good to others, establish good habits in 
our nerves and mind, and then success and happiness are 
natural results. 

SLEEP 

The health of the brain and nerves also require a proper 
attention to sleep. Sleep is nature's method of restoring 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM 115 

strength to both, mind and body, by replacing the tissues 
which have been worn out by the labors of the day. The 
time for sleep should be sacredly observed. The average 
adult requires from seven to eight hours in the twenty- 
four. Children need considerably more time for sleep. 
Failure to give the mind and body the necessary amount 
of rest in sleep, lowers the tone of the nervous system. 
There is no substitute for natural sleep. Drugs used to 
induce sleep are not only harmful in themselves, but in 
the end lead to conditions far worse than that from which 
relief is sought. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. What is the structure cf a nerve? 

2. What is included in the nervous system? 

3. What work is done by the nerves? 

4. Describe the spinal cord. Explain its work. 

5. What are ganglia? 

6. Into how many parts is the brain divided? Which of 
these is the workroom of the mind? 

7. What is the work of the cerebellum? 

8. What is the importance of the medulla oblongata? 
Where is it situated? 

9. What are the cranial nerves? Describe the functions of 
some of them. 

10. Explain what is meant by reflex action of nerves. 

11. What are some of the causes of "nervousness"? 

12. Show the importance of forming right habits. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE SENSES 

The message that the nerves carry to the hrain is called 
sensation. There are certain definite sensations that are 
carried by nerves from certain organs of the body called 
special senses, because they belong only to special organs. 
We speak of them as the senses. They are the sense of 
sight, smell, taste, hearing, and touch. The organs to 
which they belong are the eye, the nose, the mouth, the 
ear, and the skin. 

SIGHT 

The eye is the organ of sight. It is contained in a 
cavity of the skull called the orbit. Here it is protected 
from injury by walls of bone, except in front, where the 
eyelid, together with the eyelashes, protect it. The 
muscles of the eye are capable of directing it upward and 
downward, to the right and to the left. 

The eye is spherical in form, and its exterior is sup- 
ported by a hard, firm membrane, called the sclerotic coat. 
This coat is white and smooth, except where muscles are 
inserted. It gives the whiteness to the outer margin of 
the visible eye, but its inner surface has a brown color. 
When the sclerotic coat is taken from the eye of an ox 
and boiled, it turns to gelatine. 

116 



THE SENSES 117 

The cornea is the outer transparent part of the front 
of the eyeball. It is curved on the outside, and hollow on 
the inside, like a watch glass. It is a continuation of the 
sclerotic coat, modified so as to make it transparent. 
There are no blood vessels in the cornea, nor does it con- 
tain lymphatic vessels, but it is supplied with numerous 
nerves. 

The iris is the colored portion in the front of the eye. 
In its center is the pupil. The word iris means rainbow, 
and the eye is brown, black, blue, or gray, according to 
the pigment cells contained in it. The iris is really the 
curtain of the eye, for, by means of certain muscles, it is 
able to enlarge or reduce the opening in the middle of it, 
making the pupil large or small, and so letting in more 
or less sight. 




Fig. 43. — Vertical Section of the Eyeball. 

a, cornea ; b, anterior chamber ; c, iris ; d, ligament ; E, crystalline 
lens ; f, pupil ; G, h, muscle ; i, posterior chamber ; J, sclerotic coat ; 
k, choroid coat ; l, retina ; m, optic nerve. 

The crystalline lens is situated immediately behind the 
pupil. It is a colorless transparent body, firm in struc- 
ture, and is doubly convex ; that is, it bows out both front 
and back. It consists of concentric layers like the layers 



118 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

which compose the fleshy bulb of an onion. In the adult 
the lens is more convex in the back than in the front. In 
old persons the lens becomes flatter on both sides, is no 
longer perfectly transparent, has an amber color, and 
becomes quite hard. It is the work of the crystalline lens 
to bring the rays of light to a focus, or point, upon the 
back part of the interior of the eye. 

The vitreous body fills four-fifths of the inside of the 
eyeball, the space between the lens and the retina. It is 
a transparent fluid of the consistency of thin jelly, 
enclosed in a delicate, transparent membrane. This 
vitreous fluid looks like pure water, but it contains some 
salts, and a little albumen. 

The retina is one of the most important parts of the 
eye. It is a delicate nervous membrane, upon the surface 
of which the images of objects are received. The retina 
has ten layers, yet it is very thin, being only about one- 
eightieth of an inch in thickness. It is attached to the 
inside of the eyeball at the back. 

The optic nerve leads from the retina to the brain. It 
is the special nerve of the sense of sight, and passes to the 
brain through a small hole in the back of the orbit, When 
light, which comes in waves, falls upon the retina, it sets 
up nerve impulses in the fibers of the optic nerve. The 
nerves then carry, by their impulses, an accurate descrip- 
tion of the objects whose pictures are on the retina, to 
the seeing center of the brain. The mind takes full 
account of the description, and we have an accurate 
knowledge of what is before us, although the images are 



THE SENSES 



119 



upside down on the retina. The mind receives the knowl- 
edge of the image on the retina; in some way it inverts 
the image, and we see it properly. Sometimes a dis- 
ordered brain makes it impossible to see things properly. 

Muscles of the Eye. — There are six muscles used in 
moving the eye. They are attached to the eyeball in such 
a way that it can be moved in any direction. Four of the 




Fig. 44. — The Right Eye, Showing the Muscles which Mote the 

Eyeball, 
a, eyeball ; b, g, oblique muscles ; c, d, f, h, recti muscles ; e, optic 
nerve. 

muscles, called the recti muscles, are fastened to the eye- 
ball near the edge of the cornea, and two, called the 
oblique muscles, are fastened to the eyeball behind the 
recti. 

Accommodation. — When we suddenly go into the dark, 
we are unable to see for a short time. In a moment, 
however, we begin to see the objects before us in a degree. 
The eye must have time to accommodate itself to large 
and small quantities of light. In a strong light the open- 



120 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

ing in the iris contracts and the pupil is small: in the 
dark, the iris opens and the pupil is large. There are 
changes also in the roundness of the eye. This is neces- 
sary because we want to look at objects that are near us, 
and at those which are at a distance. The muscles relax 
to focus on distant objects, and contract to focus on near- 
by objects. Long continued looking at nearby objects 
strains the muscles of the eye and weakens them. 

In a normal, or perfect eye, the parallel light rays focus 
on the retina when the eye is at rest. But if the cornea, 
or lens, or the shape of the eyeball is not normal, then 
the parallel rays will not focus on the retina, and the eye 
is imperfect. The vision is then said to be defective. 

DEFECTS IN SIGHT 

The eye is very delicate, and the least injury or slightest 
deviation in the shape of the lens, causes defects in vision. 
Bad circulation in the blood vessels of the retina may 
prevent good vision. There are so many troubles of the 
eye that we have physicians called oculists who give their 
whole time to studying and treating the eye. The man 
who makes spectacles is called an optician. 

Color-blindness. — Some people do not accurately see 
certain colors. This defect is called color-blindness. It is 
said that about four in every one hundred persons are 
color-blind. It is vitally important for locomotive engi- 
neers and boat pilots not to be color-blind, as they must 
be able to see and to clearly distinguish colored signals. 
Hence, railroad and steamboat companies will not employ 






THE SENSES 121 

color-blind men. So important is this that they test every 
man employed by them. 

Test for Color-blindness. — In testing for color-blindness 
a number of skeins of wool are used, and three test colors 
are chosen: (1) a pale pure green skein; (2) a medium 
purple or magenta skein, and (3) a vivid red skein. The 
person who is being tested is given skein number one and 
is asked to select from a large number of skeins of assorted 
colors those that have a similar color value. He is not to 
make an exact match, but to select those that appear to 
have the same color. If he is red-blind or green-blind, the 
test skein will appear gray, with some yellow or blue shade. 
He will select, therefore, not only the green skeins but the 
grays, or grayish yellow, and blue skeins. To ascertain 
red-blindness, the person is given the medium purple or 
magenta skein and the vivid red skein to match with other 
colors. With test two, medium purple, the person who 
is red-blind will select, in addition to other purples, only 
blues or violets. The green-blind person will select greens 
and grays. 

Near- or Short-sight. — Some persons cannot see objects 
at a distance. To read they hold the page within a very 
short distance of the face. This is because the eyeball is 
too long, and this causes the rays of light to focus in front 
of the retina. 

Near-sight is often hereditary, but may also be brought 
on by straining the eyes. Much reading of small type in 
a poor light will cause near-sightedness. Near-sight is 
also called myopia. It may be corrected by properly fitted 
concave glasses. 



122 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



Long- or Far-sight. 
— When the eyeball is 

too short, the focus 
falls beyond the retina 
and causes far-sight. 
With far-sighted per- 
sons the print becomes 
blurred and foggy, if 
reading is too long 
continued. Far-sight- 
edness shows itself in 
children by squinting 
when they try to see 
things close at hand. 
It may be corrected 
by properly fitted con- 
Vex glasses. 

Old-sight. — When 
about forty-five years 
of age most persons 
put on glasses, even though their eyes have given no 
trouble up to this point. This is because there may 
be a loss of power to adjust the focus of the eye for near 
objects. Age causes the lens to grow stiff, and it cannot 
be focused on near objects. This may also be corrected by 
a properly adjusted convex lens. 

Astigmatism. — Sometimes the various curved surfaces 
of the cornea or the lens differ, and persons so afflicted 
may readily distinguish perpendicular or horizontal lines, 
but not both kinds equally well at the same time. This 




Fig. 45. — Defects in Eyesight, 
a, normal eye ; b, near-sighted eye ; 
c, far-sighted eye. 



THE SENSES 



123 



condition is called astigmatism. Children who have 
astigmatism wrinkle their foreheads, and thrust their 
heads and shoulders into various positions, sometimes in 
this way helping to bring on spinal curvature, which 
deforms them and breaks down their health. It is rare 
to find a person who has absolutely perfect eyes. Perhaps 
such a person does riot live, for there seems to be a small 
degree of astigmatism in all eyes. 




Fig. 46. 

Astigmatism may be detected by looking at the center 
of Figure 46. If the eye is defective in this respect, some 
of the lines appear distinct, while those at right angles to 
them are blurred. This is because one that suffers from 
much astigmatism cannot focus distinctly at the same time 
lines that are at right angles to each other. 

Children who have astigmatism suffer from eye-ache 
and headache. This makes them irritable, and the imper- 
fection of sight retards progress in their studies. Every 



124 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



child should have his eyes examined by an oculist, for 
there are few eyes that are perfect. If the oculist finds 
any serious imperfections he will give directions how to 
correct them. 




Fig. 47. — Faulty Position, Often Caused by Astigmatism. 

Nature's Protection of the Eye. — The eyebrows are 
placed about the eyes partly for ornament, but also to 
prevent perspiration from flowing down into them. There 
are two movable curtains called eyelids attached to each 
eye. The upper lids are more flexible than the lower, but 
both have a line of hair called eyelashes which stand out 
straight upon their edges. The eyelashes are very sensi- 
tive to touch for their roots have nerves, and they give 
warning of the approach of any particles of dust, insects, 
or other foreign bodies. When such warning is received 
the eyelids instantly close and protect the eyes. 



THE SENSES 



125 



The skin is very loose on the outside of the eyelids, and 
their inner surfaces are covered with a thin, moist, 
mucous lining called the conjunctiva. A similar mem- 
brane also covers the eyeballs. The conjunctiva is very 
sensitive, and helps to protect the eyes. In the lids, 
between the skin and the conjunctiva, are cartilages which 
preserve the roundness and firmness of the walls of the 
lids. There are oil glands in these cartilages furnishing 
an oily substance which lubricates the lids. This keeps 
them from adhering to the eyeballs, and also prevents their 
edges from sticking together. The lids do much to regu- 
late the quantity of light entering the eye, and they con- 
tinually wash the surface of 
the eyeball with moisture from 

the tear glands. When we ^^-J^ - ^* > ' "~ 

sleep the eyelids close and pro- 
tect the eyes from the light 
and from any injury. 




Fig. 48. — Showing the Tear 
Gland of the Eye. 
a, gland ; b, tear duct ; c, 
tear sac ; d, duct leading to 
the nose. 



The tear glands are located 
just above the external corner 
of the eye. Tears are con- 
stantly being secreted. Ducts 
lead from the glands to the 

inner corners of the eyes, and all the tear secretion which 
is not needed to keep the eyeballs moist and transparent, 
passes into the nose. If the eyes become dry because of 
disease, or from hot winds, they smart, and the sight is 
blurred. When we cry the tears run out of the eyes, 
because the ducts leading into the nose are not large 
enough to carry away the greatly increased discharge. 



126 Li^E WITH HEALTH 

THE CARE OF THE EYES 

The greatest of care should be taken of the eyes. Pain 
or smarting in the eyes is a warning that should be 
heeded immediately. If the eyes ache, parents and teach- 
ers should be told at once. In any case, every child's eyes 
should be carefully examined. The eyes are avenues to 
the brain, carrying knowledge of external things, and if 
they are deficient in any way, the wrong should be cor- 
rected if possible. 

Never try to read or sew, or do any fine work in a poor 
light. Eeading in the twilight is certain to injure the 
eyes. The sun should not shine directly on the book, 
writing, or sewing. If a light is glaring, shade it with 
ground glass or an opal shade or paper. If the light 
comes from behind, or from the right side, shadows are 
cast upon the book or paper. The light should always 
fall over the left shoulder. If the seats at school are so 
placed that the pupils are compelled to look into the light 
when looking straight ahead, or if the light is from the 
front or over the right shoulder, a change in the arrange- 
ment of the seats should be made, or the matter should 
be remedied in some other way. 

An oil lamp is the best artificial light by which to read. 
The German student lamp makes an excellent light. If a 
gas light is used there should be placed over it an opal 
shade, or one that has a light blue tint. 

If the type in a book or on a newspaper is small, or if 
it is even medium-sized type with pale letters, it should 
not be read. A great deal of harm results from reading 
newspapers, or books, poorly printed in small type. 



THE SENSES 127 

It is injurious to read while lying down, or while 
walking, or riding. Eeading on the cars is also very bad 
for the eyes, unless the type is large and the letters black. 
Bending over work for any length of time tires the muscles 
of the eyes. If the eyes smart or pain while reading, 
writing, or sewing, they should be closed for a short time, 
then rested by looking out at the grass and trees and at 
distant objects. 

Washing in cold water, to which a pinch of salt has 
been added, is good for smarting or tired eyes. Never buy 
eyewashes, or any medicine for the eyes, which is not 
recommended by a physician. We should never neglect a 
sore eye, for if one eye becomes diseased the other is likely 
to become diseased also, through sympathy or by contagion. 
If a speck gets into the eye it should not be rubbed; lift- 
ing up the lid by the lashes will permit the tears to wash 
it out. 

Any matter, or pus, in the eye is caused by disease, and 
great pains should be taken not to introduce matter from 
one into the other, for fear both will become diseased. 
Any one who has weak, watery eyes or inflamed lids, or 
who has matter in his eyes, should have a separate wash- 
basin and towels. Better let the face stay dirty than to 
use a towel which a person with sore eyes has used. 

THE SENSE OF SMELL 

The nose is the special organ of the sense of smell. Its 
nerves warn us against the inhalation of foul and poison- 
ous gases into the lungs, and they assist the sense of taste 
in deciding the properties of food. 



128 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



There are two openings to the nose, called the nostrils, 
which are separated from each other by a partition of 
cartilage called the septum.. The nostrils lead into two 
quite large, irregular cavities, the fossae, and these in turn 
open into the pharynx. 

The nose is lined with a mucous membrane which is 
always moist. This membrane has hanging from it 
minute flesh hairs, or filaments, which are constantly 
vibrating from within outward. These are the air-strain- 
ers. They move with the incoming air current, just as 
grain waves in the wind. 

We should always breathe through the nose, never 
through the mouth, for the nose strains and warms the air 
before it enters the lungs, and the mouth does nothing of 
the kind. Breathing through the mouth is certain, sooner 
or later, to introduce germs or dust into the lungs and to 
cause trouble. 

The organ of smell is the 
upper part of the mucous 
membrane of the nasal fossae. 
The nerve of smell is called 
the olfactory nerve, and its 
terminal filaments are distrib- 
uted in the mucous membrane. 
Substances have odor only 
when minute particles are 
given off into the air we 
breathe. A portion of rose oil too small to weigh can be 
discovered by the nose. Boiling coffee or broiling steak 




Fig. 49. — The Olfactory 

Nerve. 
a, olfactory bulb ; b, nerve 
filaments ; c, bard palate. 



THE SENSES 129 

can be discerned out on the street, when cooking is going 
on in a closed kitchen. 

Dogs have a keener sense of smell than men ; horses can 
smell water. In hunting deer, the hunter must approach 
on the side from which the wind blows toward him, for 
if it blows from him toward the deer, they will scent him 
half a mile away, and escape. Some people are very sus- 
ceptible to odors, so much so, indeed, that certain odors 
cause faintness, or bring on disease like hay fever. 

The sense of smell becomes quickly fatigued, for it is 
very noticeable that after a few smells of a rose the odor 
cannot be noticed. When we enter a badly ventilated 
room, an odor is always perceived, but in a few moments 
w T e cease to notice it. A pungent odor like ammonia is 
perceived by the lower portions of the nose, but it is not 
really smelled. 

Smell and taste are intimately associated. The quali- 
ties of certain foods, such as fruits and wines, are per- 
ceived by the sense of smell rather than by taste. When 
such food is swallowed, the back of the nose is shut off 
from the back of the mouth by the soft palate, but in the 
expiration succeeding swallowing, the odor of the food is 
noticed. Flavors are therefore perceived after the act of 
swallowing. If the nostrils are blocked, as when one has 
a cold in the head, foods lose much of their flavor. Simply 
holding the nose will destroy much of the flavor of fruits. 

THE SENSE OF TASTE 

The tongue is the organ of taste. It lies in the cavity 
formed by the lower teeth, and its inner surface is con- 



130 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



nected with the lower jaw by a muscle. The tip of the 
tongue, part of its under surface, its sides, and the top 
surface are free. The surface of the tongue is marked 
along the middle by a line which divides it into two equal 
parts. The front part of the tongue is rough on the sur- 
face, and is covered with small projections called papillae. 

The mucous membrane of the 
tongue is provided with numer- 
ous follicles and glands. There 
are arteries to bring blood to the 
tongue, and it has three nerves 
in each half, two being nerves of 
taste, and the other a nerve to 
control the movements of the 
tongue. The tasting nerves lead 
directly to the taste center in the 
brain. 

Taste sensations are very nu- 
merous, but there are only four 
fundamental tastes or sensations, 
namely: sweet, bitter, acid, and 
salty; all other tastes are com- 
binations of these. The seemingly 
great variety of our taste sensa- 
tions is largely due to the fact that we confuse, or com- 
bine, them at the time with certain odor sensations. 







Fig. 50. — The Tongue. 

a, tip ; b, root ; c, epi- 
glottis ; d, hyoid bones ; e, 
f, g, papillae. 



Alcohol, spices, and tobacco all lessen the sensitiveness 
of taste through over-stimulation. Tobacco smoke dries 
the nostrils, irritates the tongue, and benumbs the taste. 



THE SENSES 
HEARING 



131 



There are three parts to the ear. The external ear, 
which stands out from the sides of the head; the middle 
ear, or tympanum, and the internal ear, or labyrinth. The 
external ear is a kind of funnel which collects sound- 
waves and directs them through the canal in the head, 
called the auditory canal, to the tympanum. 




Fig. 51. — Showing Section Through the Left Ear. 

a, external ear ; b, auditory canal ; c, middle ear ; d, bones of the 
middle ear ; e, drum membrane ; f, eustachian tube ; g, cochlea ; h, semi- 
circular canal ; i, auditory nerve. 

The middle ear is sometimes called the drum chamber, 
and is an irregular cavity in the temporal bone. The 
drum chamber is always filled with air, and is divided by 
a partition from the interior end of the auditory canal. 
There is also a canal, called the eustachian tube, leading 
from the middle ear to the pharynx. This tube allows air 
from the throat to enter the middle ear, thus balancing 
the pressure on the drum of the ear from the outside. If 
the eustachian tube becomes inflamed, or is stopped up 



132 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

with mucous, the air in the middle ear is absorbed, and the 
external air presses inward on the drum, causing an un- 
comfortable feeling and more or less deafness. 

Three small bones called the hammer, or malleus; the 
anvil bone, or incus, and the stirrup bone, or stapes, 
stretch across the middle ear, from the drum membrane to 
the labyrinth, transmitting the vibrations of the drum to 
the liquid of the labyrinth. 

The internal ear, or 
labyrinth, is the essential 
part of the hearing machin- 
ery. It is called the laby- 
rinth because it is so com- 
plicated. It consists of 

three parts, the vestibule, 
Fig. 52. — The Bones of the m * 

Ear - semi-circular canals, and 

a, malleus; b, incus; c, stapes. 

cochlea. In these bony 
cavities and tubes are membranous chambers and tubes, 
in which the fibers of the auditory nerve end. The audi- 
tory nerve leads into the hearing centers of the brain. 
The cochlea consists of a tube coiled up very much like a 
snail shell. Partitions divide it into three chambers filled 
with lymph. The membranous partition supports the 
organ of corti, and together they form a series of vibrat- 
ing cords, which have a delicate nerve apparatus. 

HOW WE HEAR 

What we call sound is borne to us in the air. There 
can be no sound in a vacuum. When a guitar string is 
made to vibrate, sound is produced, and in the same way 
our vibrating vocal cords produce sound. Sound travels 




THE SENSES 133 

in waves. Loudness depends upon the extent of vibration, 
and pitch upon the rapidity. Slow vibrations give deep 
tones, and rapid vibrations shrill tones. The outer ear 
gathers the sound waves (vibrations), and conducts them 
into the auditory canal. They strike the drum, are carried 
by the ear bones to the labyrinth, and then into the 
cochlea, when they come upon the organ of Corti and the 
membraneous partitions which support this organ. From 
here the auditory nerve carries their message to the brain. 

CARE OF THE EARS 

The ears secrete a substance which hardens and is called 
eanvax. Sometimes this wax accumulates and becomes 
quite hard, obstructing the auditory canal, or lies against 
the drum and prevents it from vibrating when sound- 
waves strike it. This causes one kind of deafness, and it 
is usually the result of uncleanliness. The ears must be 
kept clean by washing them, but a pin or other hard 
substance should never be put into them. Sometimes 
permanent harm is caused by picking the ear. 

The hearing is sometimes affected by measles and scarlet 
fever, which may leave the middle ear diseased. Care 
should be taken to protect both the ears and the eyes 
during the period of these diseases. A person, with nor- 
mal hearing, should hear distinctly a watch tick three 
feet away, and words spoken in low tones twenty feet away. 

TOUCH 

General sensations give a knowledge of the various parts 
of the body, such as fatigue, discomfort, faintness, aching, 
and burning. 



134 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

The sense of touch is located in the surface of the skin. 
By means of it, we appreciate by actual contact the size, 
form and character of the surface of objects. Where the 
nerve endings are most numerous and their covering the 
thinnest, as in the tip of the tongue, under surface of the 
fingers, and edges of the lips, there touch is most sensitive. 

The hands are most usually employed in the exercise 
of the sense of touch. The fingers are furnished with 
thousands of papillae, and can be moved so freely, that we 
generally think of touch as being located only in them. 
Touch is the simplest of all the senses. The blind learn 
to distinguish articles by touch, the sense becoming so 
delicate by cultivation that they can readily read raised 
letters. They learn to distinguish plants, features, fabrics, 
and laces, by simply touching them. 

THE MUSCULAR SENSE 

The muscular sense enables us to distinguish weight and 
resistance. It is highly developed where the tactile or 
touch sense is most acute. The muscular sense depends 
to a great extent upon the muscular nerves. It makes it 
possible for us to appreciate resistance, elasticity, and 
immobility. Bankers sometimes gain such delicacy of 
the muscular sense, that they can tell instantly whether or 
not a coin is light, and sometimes whether or not a bill is 
counterfeit. 

PAIN 

Pain is a form of sensation that is useful to us, for 
through it we learn of destructive processes, of diseased 
conditions, and gain knowledge necessary for our preser- 



THE SENSES 135 

vation. When the natural limit of nerve stimulation or 
irritation is reached, then we have pain. A little tickling 
may not be unpleasant, but if continued it may become 
painful and even cause death. Fatigue causes the muscles 
to ache. Too much light in the eyes, as when looking at 
the sun, causes pain. Harsh and very loud sounds may 
cause pain in the ears. Pain in the head, commonly called 
headache, is a warning of something wrong somewhere. 

TEMPERATURE SENSE 

There are in the skin certain special nerve ends which 
are devoted to heat and cold sensations. This sense is 
distinguished from the sense of touch, and is known as 
the temperature sense. Some of these nerve ends are 
sensitive only to relatively high temperature, and are 
known as heat spots. Some others respond only to quite 
cold temperature, and are called cold spots. 

QUESTIONS FOB BEVIEW 

1. What is meant by the senses? 

2. How many are there? What are the corresponding 
organs? 

3. Describe the eye. What gives it its color? What 
moves it? 

4. Why is the retina an important part? 

5. What are some of the most common defects of sight? 

6. How is the eye protected? 

7. Where is the sense of smell located? 

8. Where are the nerves of taste situated? 

9. How many different taste sensations are there? 

10. Name the several functions of the tongue. 

11. How is the tongue affected by fever? 



CHAPTER XII 
SPEECH AND THE VOICE 

Only man can express thoughts in articulate sounds. 
Some of the lower animals can make varying sounds; 
birds can chirp and sing; the dog welcomes his master in 
one tone and threatens strangers in harsher tones, but 
many of the lower animals make no sounds. 

There is a great difference as to the use of the voice 
among the higher and lower grades of men. The highly 
intelligent use their voices to better effect, and to a greater 
degree, than those of low intelligence. Probably no other 
one mode of manifestation is so sure a revelation of intel- 
ligence and culture as the voice. Idiots, although they 
have complete organs of speech, cannot pronounce dis- 
tinctly, and sometimes resemble lower animals in their 
vocal sounds. 

Speech is effected through the special senses, for 
through them we secure impressions which grow into 
ideas and thoughts, and finally are expressed in speech. 
Even the deaf, if intelligent, may be taught to speak. 

THE LARYNX 

The larynx is the principal organ of voice, but the 
trachea, lungs, breathing muscles, nose, pharynx, mouth, 
and tongue are all engaged in producing articulate speech. 

136 



SPEECH AND THE VOICE 



137 



The larynx is placed in the upper part of the air passage 
between the trachea and the base of the tongue. It is 
lined by the same mucous membrane which lines the 
pharynx. The framework of the larynx is composed of 




Fig. 33. — View of the Open Mouth. 
a, b. nose : c. septum : d. hard palate : e. soft palate : f, uvula ; 
G., h, pillars of fauces : i, tonsil : j, pharynx : k, tongue. 

nine cartilages, connected by ligaments, and controlled by 
numerous muscles. The Adam's apple is one of these 
cartilages. 

The epiglottis is a small leaf-shaped trapdoor which 
prevents the entrance of food into the larynx during the 
act of swallowing. 

THE VOCAL CORDS 

The vocal cords are most important in producing speech. 
These are elastic bands of ligament stretched across the 



138 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



larynx from back to front. They are so arranged as to 
vibrate when air passes over them, and are attached on 
three sides, only one edge being free. 

In stringed instruments, the strings are attached by 
the ends only, and in organs the reeds are fastened at one 
end, and have three edges to vibrate. It is almost beyond 
understanding how man with two cords can produce so 
many different sounds. 

The muscles of the larynx are many and under perfect 
control. At will, they loosen or tighten and produce the 
various differences of sound which make up the human 
voice. Some muscles of the larynx rotate and move out- 
wardly and some inwardly, some regulate the tension of 
the cords, or control respiration, or move the epiglottis. 





High Note. Quiet Breathing. 

Fig. 54. — The Larynx in Different Conditions^ 
Upper line shows epiglottis ; middle line, the false vocal cords ; low- 
er line, true vocal cords. 

Speech is produced only when we' empty the lungs, never 
when filling them. As soon as an attempt is made to 
produce a sound, the vocal cords are all attention and 
ready to act. In making high notes or shrill sounds they 
become tense and get close together. When low notes are 
uttered they relax and separate. To produce clear vocal 
sound the cords almost touch edges. If not smooth and 
straight, or if they do not vibrate properly, or if mucous 



SPEECH AND THE VOICE 139 

is in the throat/ hoarse sounds are emitted. Stammering 
results from a loss of control over the diaphragm. The 
stammerer can manage his vocal cords, but his diaphragm 
acts spasmodically. A stutterer's trouble is in his lips 
and tongue. Ee can control his vocal cords and dia- 
phragm. 

Loudness and intensity of vocal sounds depend upon the 
elasticity of the vocal cords and the force of the escaping 
air. Differences in pitch depend upon the length of the 
cords and consequent rapidity of vibration. Quality or 
timber is that characteristic which enables us to distin- 
guish the voices of different persons. 

Vowel sounds are produced when the breath is not 
obstructed above the larynx in its outward passage. Con- 
sonant sounds result when the outgoing air is obstructed 
by the tongue, teeth or lips. 

Voices may be cultivated to be soft and gentle, to 
modulate and inflect, and to develop power and range of 
sound. The high-pitched voice of children is due to the 
small size of the larynx and short vocal cords. At about 
fourteen a boy's voice usually changes. This is because 
the larynx increases in size, and the cords become longer. 
For a time the regulating power of the muscles is dimin- 
ished. The voices of girls do not change so much as those 
of boys. They develop strength and compass, the quality 
not changing to any degree. 

CARE OF THE ORGANS OF SPEECH 

The organs of speech need fresh air as well as the lungs. 
Colds injure the voice not only temporarily but sometimes 



140 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

weaken it permanently. Singers are very careful in all 
precautions against taking cold. The general health is 
important. A sickly person, or one in pain, shows it in his 
speech. The voice should be used in a natural manner. 
Screaming and yelling are not to be absolutely forbidden, 
but should be severely controlled. Whisky and tobacco 
affect the voice. Huskiness of voice is frequently noticed 
in the drinking man. The smoke from tobacco sometimes 
sets up a troublesome cough through its irritant action. 

Singing, practiced in the right way, is an exceedingly 
useful exercise in voice training. It gives control of the 
breathing organs, increases the capacity of the chest and 
lungs, trains and develops the vocal cords, and moderates 
and improves the quality of the speaking voice. But the 
voice should not be strained. Children should be encour- 
aged to sing softly and with clear, pure tones, to strive 
for quality rather than quantity of tone. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. By what organs is the sound of the voice produced? 

2. What are the vocal cords? 

3. What do the lips, tongue and teeth have to do with the 

voice? 

4. How do we produce a loud sound? 

5. What causes stammering? Hoarseness? 

6. How may the voice be cultivated? 

7. In what way is singing beneficial? 



CHAPTER XIII 
WATER 

Water is the most important and abundant of all foods. 
It is a true food, for it is necessary to the composition of 
every cell and tissue of the body. We need several pints 
of water every day. Most foods, and especially fruits and 
vegetables, contain large amounts of water, and from 
these and from soups, milk, coffee, tea, in addition to 
drinking water, we secure the supply we need. 

The flesh of old persons has less water in it than the 
flesh of children. It is the large amount of water in the 
flesh of young persons which gives them their freshness 
and roundness. Old persons become wrinkled, and lose 
their youthful appearance, in proportion as the water 
leaves their tissues. It has been said that the difference 
between youth and old age is only a little water. Even if 
old persons were to drink more water, it would not become 
a part of their tissues, because their cells are gradually 
losing activity. 

PUKE WATER 

Pure water is not found in nature. From whatever 
source it is taken, it is found to have something dissolved 
in it. Water can be made pure, however, by distillation. 
Chemists, druggists, and physicians must have distilled 

141 



142 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



water in their chemical work and in medicines, and they 
often distill it themselves by means of a still. A still, or 
boiler, is a tin-lined copper vessel connected with another 

vessel by tin pipes, which 
can be cooled. Water is 
placed in the still, and when 
upon heating, steam forms, 
it passes through the cooled 
pipes, condensing into water 
again, and is collected in 
the other vessel. 

Distilled water is the 
purest and best drinking 
water. In most large cities, 
there are companies which 
sell distilled water in bot- 
tles. The sailors on war 
vessels are supplied with 
distilled water, and so are 
the passengers who travel on 
large ocean steamers. Physi- 
cians prescribe distilled 
water for rheumatism and diseases of the kidneys. 




Fig. 55. — A Domestic Still. 



RAIN WATER 



Bain water is said to be soft, because it does not contain 
lime, magnesia, iron or other minerals. It is therefore 
better than hard water in which to cook vegetables. Eain 
water is best, too, for bathing and for washing clothes. In 
combination with soap, it quickly forms a lather, or soap 



WATEE 143 

suds, and is therefore excellent for cleaning. Eain water 
is so superior for bathing purposes that some people go to 
the expense of building tanks, or wooden cisterns, in the 
tops of their houses, and keeping them filled with it. 
From these tanks the water is conducted through pipes 
to bath rooms and wash stands. 

Eain water is really distilled water, only it is distilled 
from the air by nature on a gigantic scale. It is fine 
drinking water, if it is collected properly. First, the 
cistern must be clean and tightly covered ; second, the air, 
the roof, eave-troughs, and down-spouts must be clean. 
This may be brought about by not turning the rain water 
into the cistern until the rain has been descending for some 
time. In this way, the dust in the air and the dirt on the 
roof are not carried into the cistern, and so pure water is 
secured. Water collected in this way is most wholesome, 
and never contains anything to cause disease. 

Typhoid fever is very frequently brought to us in well- 
water, which in some way has become polluted. If every 
house were provided with a drinking water cistern, which 
is carefully filled with rain water as described, there 
would be very much less typhoid fever, and the people 
would be far healthier. 

WELL WATER 

Well water is more or less hard, in proportion as it car- 
ries lime, magnesia, and other mineral matters in solution. 
These are dissolved from the earth as the water soaks 
through it. Sometimes wells furnish water too salty to 



144 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



drink; this is because there are large quantities of salt in 
the earth near by. 

Hard water forms a curd with soap. It is impossible 
to dissolve the dust from our hands, or to wash the dirt 
out of clothes, with hard water, until the soap has made it 
soft, by combining with the lime and magnesia to make 
a curd. This insoluble curd materially interferes with 
bathing, for it is deposited on the skin, and fills up the 
pores. Moreover, hard water is not so wholesome to 
drink as soft water. 




Fig. 56. — Showing How Water in a Dug Well May Become Impure. 
Bug wells often become polluted. The picture makes 
plain how this happens. Sanitarians say that all dug 
wells should be condemned and filled up, because they so 
frequently cause disease. If a dug well has a wooden 
platform, and no trough to carry away waste water, it 
is certain to furnish bad water, and no one should drink 



WATER 145 

from it. Besides the danger from decayed wooden plat- 
forms, there is great danger that worms, rats, and mice 
may get into dug wells. 

Deep-driven or drilled wells always furnish hard water, 
but it is rarely polluted, and is not so likely, therefore, to 
cause disease. The pipes of a drilled well pass through 
the layers of earth, finally piercing a stratum or layer of 
clay, and reach the gravel beneath, which is filled with 
clear and clean water. Surface drainage does not get into 
the water of deep wells which are drilled, as the clay or 
rock stratum stops the bad water from above. 

SPRINGS 

Springs are frequently praised as the very best source 
of drinking water. Spring water usually flows out of 
hills, high banks, or mountains. So long as the hills or 
banks are not cultivated, or are not roamed over by men 
and animals, this is true. The springs which flow from 
such hills will supply measurably pure water. It is like 
the water from well protected, deep wells. 

RIVERS AND LAKES 

River, creek, pond, and lake waters are very likely to be 
polluted, and should never be used for drinking water 
unless boiled or filtered. Cows stand in creeks and ponds 
in the summer time, and barnyards drain into them. 
Cities and towns drain their sewage into rivers and lakes. 
Pollution occurs in practically all surface waters. 



146 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

PURIFICATION OF WATER 

Boiling will destroy germs and other impurities in 
water. A practical way to prepare boiled water for a 
family is to boil it hard for at least twenty minutes; 
then pour it into a large stone jar, cover the jar with a 
clean cloth or stone cover, and let it cool. Considerable 
lime, magnesia, and flecks of other insoluble matter will 
settle to the bottom, and the clear water above may be 
dipped out to drink. 

Besides destroying offensive polluting matters, boiling 
softens water, by causing much of the mineral matter to 
become insoluble. Boiled water has a flat taste, which is 
caused by the absence of mineral matters, and because the 
oxygen and carbon dioxide gas have been driven off by 
the heat. To remove the flat taste, take two pitchers, fill 
one with boiled water, and add a pinch of salt, then pour 
through the air from one pitcher to v the other several 
times. 

Hundreds of lives would be saved every year, if people 
would boil all drinking water which is taken from dug 
wells and from shallow-driven wells. Many cities have 
constructed great sand filters, at enormous expense, in 
order to procure pure water. The fine sand in filters 
strains out floating matter, such as leaves and dirt, and 
also destroys germs and dissolved impurities. The filter 
beds at Indianapolis cover several acres, and purify about 
10,000,000 gallons of water every day. 






WATER 147 

QUESTIONS FOB REVIEW 

1. Why should water be called a food? 

2. What makes the skin of old people wrinkle? 

3. What is distilled water? Why is it purer than spring 
water? 

4. Which is easier to wash with, hard or soft water? Why? 

5. How many kinds of well water are there? Which is 
better? Why? 

6. Under what conditions is spring water not good for 
drinking purposes? 

7. Why is the water of rivers, lakes, and ponds dangerous 
to drink? 

8. How may it be made fit to drink? 

9. What effect does boiling have upon the water? 

10. Is there any way of purifying water besides boiling it? 



CHAPTER XIV 
FOODS 

We must eat food and drink water to build up and main- 
tain the body. New material is needed for growth in 
young persons, and for the renewal of muscles, flesh, bones, 
and nerves, which are continually wearing out through 
work and play. Grown persons need food principally to 
renew worn-out material, and to keep up the natural heat 
of the body. 

Food tastes good at almost any time, but especially so 
when we are hungry. The sense of taste is principally in 
the tip of the tongue. Delicate nerves, finer than the 
finest silk threads, lead from the tip of the tongue into 
the brain, and these carry the sensation we call taste to 
the brain. Cut these tiny nerves, and we could not tell 
quinine from sugar. Sometimes we unwisely keep on 
eating, although we have had enough, simply to enjoy 
the sensation of taste. If we do this too frequently we 
are made sick. It is very foolish to keep on eating when 
we have had enough, for overeating is followed by many 
ills. It is an old saying that persons frequently dig their 
graves with their teeth. This means that overeating 
causes disease. If we wish to keep well we should never 
eat to excess. 

There are several kinds of foods. We have animal 

148 



FOODS 



149 



f oods, such as beef, chicken, eggs, milk, and fish ; vegetable 
foods, as potatoes, beets, peas, and beans; and fruits, as 
apples, peaches, grapes, and tomatoes; lastly we have 
water, which is the most important of all foods, for it is 
a part of every cell in the body. The cells cannot live and 
work without water. In a person weighing one hundred 
pounds there are at least seventy pounds of water. 

MILK 




Of all foods milk is the best. It is the only food which 
will alone support life for a long time. Bread is called 
"the staff of life," but no one 
could live long and be strong 
with only bread to eat. Chil- 
dren and old persons should 
always have milk to drink, and 
it is good for persons of any 
age. Milk contains butter, a 
kind of sugar called milk su- 
gar, curd, a substance like 
white of egg called albumen, 
salts, and water. The butter in milk is finely divided, and 
appears as drops of fat floating around. 

Only the milk of healthy and clean cows should be 
used. If the cow is covered with dirt, and if the cow yard 
and cow barn are filthy, it is impossible to get clean milk. 
The person who milks the cow should have clean hands; 
the pails, pans, cans, bottles, in fact everything used in 
connection with milk, should be as clean as possible. 

The barns where cows are kept should be scrupulously 



Fig. 57. — A Drop of Milk, 

Magnified, Showing 

Fat Globules. 



150 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

clean. The walls should be whitewashed at intervals, and 
accumulations of dust and cobwebs prevented. Hay and 
straw should not be handled just before milking, because 
it tends to fill the air with dust. Before milking begins 
the body and flanks of the cow should be brushed to re- 
move all dust and loose hairs. Then the milker should 
have clean hands and clean clothes, and above all, the 
milk pails and cans should be fresh and clean to receive 
the new milk. Washing the cans and pails and wiping 
them dry is not enough. In addition, they should be 
scalded with boiling water and placed out in the sun after 
each milking to kill the germs and microbes. The sun is 
the arch purifier. 

Another point of great importance is to cool the milk 
rapidly, as soon as it is drawn from the cow, and then 
keep it cold. If this is not done the milk will not only 
sour, but what is still worse, it will become actually poi- 
sonous. Every summer in cities, great numbers of babies 
and young children are made very sick from drinking 
poisonous milk. This condition makes one of the most 
important food problems in large cities, for it is difficult 
to procure clean, fresh, pure milk. Milk is poisoned 
by very tiny plants called germs, or microbes, which get 
into the milk with any particles of dirt which may fall 
into it. 

Milk should be taken into the stomach very slowly. 
It will not do to pour a quantity of milk directly into the 
stomach, for it there forms a solid lump of curd, which 
digests very slowly. The proper way to drink milk "is to 
take a little into the mouth, stir it with the tongue in 
order to taste it and to mix it with the fluids of the 



FOODS 151 

mouth, and then swallow it. In this way a soft and 
broken up curd appears in the stomach, and is promptly 
and easily digested. 

Butter is made from cream, the rich part of milk, and is 
an important food, provided it is fresh and sweet. Oleo- 
margarine or butterine is made of fat from the bodies of 
cattle. If oleomargarine or butterine is made of fresh, 
clean, healthy fats, and under conditions of perfect clean- 
liness, it is almost as wholesome as pure butter, but should 
never be sold fraudulently as butter. 

For the preservation of health the human system re- 
quires a certain amount of fat food. Good butter sup- 
plies this in one of the best forms, because it is very 
easily digested by even children or invalids, and is en- 
tirely wholesome. Good bread quite thickly spread with 
butter is a nearly perfect food. 

Cheese is also made from milk. It is a valuable food, 
but it should always be eaten with bread or crackers, and 
not in large quantities, for it is very rich and does not 
digest easily. Babies and very small children should not 
eat cheese. 

MEATS 

Animals that are killed for meat should be healthy, 
and the meat should be prepared for market in a very 
cleanly way. It should be carefully kept, too, so that it 
does not spoil. Sometimes dishonest butchers wash spoiled 
meat in chemicals, which makes it look fresh and destroys 
the bad odors. Only sweet fresh meat should be eaten, 



152 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



or meat properly salted, as salt pork, or salt fish, or meat 
properly cured by salting and smoking, as ham or bacon. 
The various kinds of meat differ in their value as food, 
and in digestibility. Fish, for instance, is a very whole- 
some food, and should be eaten more generally than it is. 
But, to be good food, fish must be quite fresh or properly 
cured while yet fresh. 

Beef, mutton, lamb and poultry are very nutritious, and 
are all easily digested. Beef especially is good meat, but 
many people eat too much of it. Children and old persons, 
especially, should be careful to eat beef in small quanti- 
ties. 



Veal is not so easily digested as 
beef or mutton, and many persons 
consider it unwholesome. 

Fork is hard to digest. It should 
be thoroughly cooked, and eaten 
sparingly. Ham, bacon, and sau- 
sage are all pork meat, but are 
considered good foods. There is a 
little worm called trichina, which 
is sometimes found in pork., and 
which makes the meat poisonous. 




Fig. 58. — Trichina in 
Pork. 
a, muscle fibres ; b, c, 
trichina embedded in a 
capsule. 



That is why the government inspects or examines pork. 

Eggs are excellent food. They contain albumen, fat, 
water, and salts. They are most digestible when they are 
soft-boiled, or poached soft. Hard-boiled eggs are not 






FOODS 153 

so easily digested. Fried eggs are good, but frying is not 
the best method of cooking them. 

BREAD 

Bread is the most abundant, and one of the best of all 
foods. It is made by mixing water, milk, salt, and flour 
together, and then working in yeast dissolved in water. 
The yeast is a minute plant, and when it grows in dough, 
it forms carbon dioxide gas, which lightens the dough, and 
causes it to rise. When light and just right, the dough 
is made into rolls of proper size, and baked into loaves. 

Poorly baked bread is unfit to eat. All the yeast must 
be killed by baking, and every particle of the bread should 
be baked thoroughly, to make good digestible food. Fre- 
quently doctors find children, and even grown persons, 
who have indigestion from eating poorly baked bread. 

Biscuits are made light by baking powder, a substitute 
for yeast, and crackers are simply flour, water, salt, and 
lard or other fat, well worked together and baked. Corn 
bread, or bread made from Indian meal, is both delicious 
and wholesome. 

VEGETABLE FOODS 

Vegetable foods include fruits, all kinds of garden prod- 
uce, and all kinds of grains. Grains are called cereals, 
and by the term cereal foods is meant any food made out 
of any grain. Wheat and corn are the grains most used 
in the United States, although a great deal of oatmeal 
and rice is also used. The Chinese, Japanese, and Hindus 



154 , LIFE WITH HEALTH 

regard rice as their staff of life. The Scotch eat large 
quantities of oatmeal, while the Irish use potatoes ex- 
tensively. 

If we chew wheat for a little while, a sort of wax is left 
in the mouth. This is gluten, the nourishing part of 
grain. There is a large amount of gluten in oats, and 
not so much in corn. Eice has very little gluten in it. 
Very fine white flour is considered by many persons the 
very best kind, yet it is really not so desirable for food 
as flour which is not so fine, and which has a very slight 
yellow color. Whole wheat flour is generally considered 
the most wholesome. 

GARDEN PRODUCE 

Under this name are classed, Irish potatoes, sweet pota- 
toes, peas, beans, beets, onions, parsnips, cabbage, and 
all such vegetables. Irish potatoes are very popular, prin- 
cipally because of their pleasant taste, and the peculiar 
starch they contain. When properly cooked they are an 
excellent food. Sweet potatoes are also wholesome. They 
contain more sugar than our common potato. Beans 
contain a large amount of vegetable albumen, which is very 
much like the white of egg, and is highly nutritious. 
They should be thoroughly cooked, however, otherwise 
they may cause indigestion. Beets, onions, parsnips, cab- 
bage, and greens are important articles of diet, though 
they do not contain much real nourishment, but they give 
bulk to the mass of food. This keeps the surface of the 
digestive organs spread out and promotes their work. 



FOODS 155 

FRUITS 

Fruits are very wholesome. They do not contain much 
nourishment, but their juice, sugar, agreeable acids, and 
salts are important additions to other foods. The apple 
is the king of fruits. It is good raw or in almost any form 
that it may be cooked. Apple butter and apple sauce are 
especially wholesome, while baked apple with cream is 
an excellent dessert. Oranges and bananas are health- 
ful, especially when cut up together, and eaten with 
sugar. Dates are nourishing enough to form an im- 
portant food in Turkey and other eastern countries. 
Stewed prunes are also very excellent food. A dish of 
stewed prunes with bread and butter, a soft boiled egg, 
and a glass of milk, make a good breakfast. It is very 
favorable to good health to have some fruit at every meal. 

NUTS 

Nuts contain oil, and are rich in tissue-forming sub- 
stances. They are, therefore, wholesome, nutritious food; 
but they should not be eaten in large quantities, and 
should be thoroughly masticated. A little salt taken with 
nuts makes them more digestible. 

CONDIMENTS 

Condiments are such things as salt, pepper, mustard, 
horse-radish, and vinegar. They should be used only in 
very small quantities. Some doctors advise against the 
use of all condiments, except a small amount of salt. 



156 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

WHOLESOME DRINKS 

Young people should have no other drink than pure 
cool water and pure milk. They should avoid coffee, tea, 
and all alcoholic drinks. Soda water, as usually found 
in the drug stores, is not a wholesome drink. No 
great or lasting harm results from an occasional drink of 
soda water, but it is rarely made and handled with the 
proper degree of cleanliness. The water from which it is 
made is often polluted, the syrups are preserved with 
chemicals and colored with aniline dyes. The ice cream 
is all too frequently made of materials which should not 
be used, such as milk or cream from dirty dairies, gelatin, 
starch, saccharine, and so forth. It sometimes happens 
that left-over ice cream from a soda fountain is allowed 
to melt and stand until it becomes more or less poisonous, 
and then is frozen again. The bad material used, the 
frequent uncleanliness, chemicals, coloring matter and 
spoiled cream are the causes of the nausea or sickness of 
the stomach so frequently felt after taking soda water. 

Soft drinks are the common five-cent red, pink, and 
yellow drinks sweetened with saccharine which are sold 
everywhere. They are not wholesome, for usually the 
water they contain is not pure. They are colored with 
dyes, flavored with artificial flavors, and almost always put 
up amid uncleanly surroundings. Other five-cent bottled 
drinks, some of them known as coca-cola drinks, are very 
unwholesome. Some of them contain cocaine, which is 
worse than whisky and opium in its final effects upon the 
human system. It is safer and wiser to avoid all these 
drinks. 






FOODS 157 

Root beer, if made at home, is a good summer drink, 
and so is a first class ginger ale. It is possible to procure 
both of these articles of high grade in the stores, but, as 
just said, the usual soft drinks are bad. 

Lemonade, when properly made, is an excellent drink. 
In public places it is frequently composed of impure water, 
tartaric acid, and saccharine. We should carefully avoid 
drinking lemonade in public places. 

■ The rule regarding drinks is : Avoid everything which 
stimulates. Be sure the water in soft drinks is pure, and 
that they do not contain chemicals and aniline dyes. This 
rule practically ieaves us only pure water and pure milk, 
and they are good and abundant. 

Coffee and tea are not really foods, and much injury to 
health results from their excessive use. Coffee contains 
a drug called caffein, and tea contains one called thein, 
both of which stimulate the heart, and do great injury to 
the nerves, especially when those drinks are used in ex- 
cess. They should never be used by children, and even 
for older persons, the most healthful drinks are milk and 
pure water. 

Chocolate and cocoa are drinks that are really nourish- 
ing and wholesome foods. A cup of chocolate with milk, 
some crackers, and an apple make an excellent luncheon 
or light meal. Light meals of simple foods are most con- 
ducive to good health, vigorous activity, and long life. 

DIET 

This bring us to the question of diet, which means the 
selecting of the kinds and qualities of foods that are best 



158 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

suited to us. Different conditions of life require different 
diets. For instance, men who do heavy work, out-of-doors, 
need more food than merchants, or lawyers, or other men 
who work indoors or at a desk. The outdoor work, which 
requires so much strength and activity, wears out the tis- 
sues and cells of the body faster than inactive life, and 
laboring men need so much food to renew these worn- 
out tissues that they can eat large quantities of almost 
any kind of food, and feel no bad effects. If a clerk, or 
any one who works all day at a desk or indoors, should 
eat such a dinner as a brick mason or teamster can, it is 
very likely that he would be ill in consequence. 

Seasons have some influence on diet. In the winter we 
require more meat, and solid nourishing foods, than in 
spring or summer. In the north or colder countries, the 
people eat a great deal of fat. They need it to keep up the 
heat of their bodies. The Esquimaux drink whale-oil, and 
they have been known to eat candles. The people of In- 
dia, on the contrary, avoid the use of fat. They live 
chiefly on rice and fruits. An Esquimau diet would kill 
them, while the Esquimaux could not live on vegetables 
and grains alone. 

As a rule, women do not require so much food as men. 
This is because they do not, as a rule, do such heavy work, 
and, besides, men are generally larger than women. In- 
fants require only milk for the first year, and cannot di- 
gest even bread until they have teeth to masticate it. 
Young persons who are still growing need more food than 
older persons. The tendency of many persons is to eat 
too much. Eheumatism and gout may result from con- 






FOODS 159 

tinuai overeating. The tissues of the body become un- 
healthy, and are easily attacked by disease germs. 

It is well, too, to be regular in our eating. The stomach 
should not be kept working all the time; it needs some 
rest. It takes about four hours to digest a meal thor- 
oughly, and as the stomach should have at least one hour 
for rest, it is plain that we should not eat oftener than 
every five hours. If we are out-of-doors, or exercising 
vigorously, we may need food sooner, but it is not a bad 
thing to endure a little hunger rather than start the 
stomach working when it should rest. 

Scientists have made a study of the diet problem, be- 
cause of its importance in our daily life. A bad diet 
may not only make us uncomfortable, but even ruin our 
digestive system. In order to understand the importance 
of diet, it is necessary to know something about the sub- 
stances in different foods. 

CARBOHYDRATES AND PROTEIDS 

It is evident that foods like some vegetables and grains 
which contain sugar, or starch, are very unlike eggs and 
meat. Sugar and starch contain carbon, hydrogen, and 
oxygen, only the hydrogen and oxygen are always in such 
proportion as to form water. Such foods are called carbo- 
hydrates. On the other hand, eggs and meat contain 
nitrogen, as well as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and 
are named proteids. Proteids are sometimes called nitrog- 
enous foods, the name coming from the fact that nitrogen 
is their characteristic ingredient. 

Every particle of carbohydrate food comes from the 



160 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



vegetable kingdom. Plants alone have the power of mak- 
ing carbohydrates. It is true we find carbohydrates in 
animal food, but the animal did not make them; it got 





Fig. 59. — a, starch grains from a raw potato ; b, the same from a 
boiled potato. Magnified 250 times. 

its supply from the plants it ate. Wheat, corn, and other 
cereals contain a great deal of starch (carbohydrate), and 
only a comparatively small amount of proteid. Beans and 
peas are rich in proteid. Meat and eggs contain a littla 
carbohydrate, principally in the form of sugar, but they 
are for the most part proteid. 

PROPORTION OF CARBOHYDRATE ^ND PROTEID IN CERTAIN FOODS. 



Per cent 

Name of Food. Proteid. 

Cereals Eice 7 

Corn 10 

Wheat flour 11 

Animal Foods Eggs 13 

Cows' milk. . . . . 4 

Beef 21 

Vegetables Potatoes 2 

♦ Cabbage 2 

Green peas 7 





Per cent 


Per cent 


Carbohy- 


Water. 


drates. 


13 


77 


13 


68 


13 


75 


74 


a little 


88 


5 


77 


a little 


75 


21 


9G 


5 


75 


17 



[FOODS 



16.1 



In the table it is interesting to note the large amount 
of water in eggs, milk, and beef. Cereals contain com- 
paratively little water, but vegetables contain as much as 
meats. The illustration below gives a graphic idea of the 
amount of water and other constituents in an Irish potato 
when boiled. 

The small division repre- 
sents the proportion of 
fiber, mineral matter, and 
proteid. Even an egg, which 
is semi-fluid, contains no 
more water than a potato. 
The difference in cell struc- fig. 60.— Showing proportion 

£ of Water and Nutritive Ma- 

ture oi the two ioods makes terial in a potato. 

a • -ii a, water; b, starch; c, proteid 

this possible. and mineral matter. 




PROPORTION OF FOOD ELEMENTS 



It is evident from these comparisons, that a variety of 
foods is a good thing, so that we may get the proper 
proportion of proteid and carbohydrate foods. This pro- 
portion will vary according to the climate and kind of 
work done, as has been explained in an earlier part of this 
chapter. Each man, to keep his health, should get each 
day in his food a certain amount of proteids, carbohydrates, 
fats, salts, and water. No one of these alone will support 
life for any length of time. 

The salts, such as lime, iron, and sodium compounds, of 
which common salt is one, are contained in all kinds of 
food. We often add more salt to our food at the table, and 
in proper quantity, it is a valuable aid to digestion. A 



162 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

grown man requires about one hundred fifty grains of salt 
each day, but too much salt, like too much milk or any 
other food, is injurious. 

The amount of water required varies with the season. 
In hot weather we need ijiore than in cold weather. Not 
less than three pints of water a day are required by a 
man in good health. When working at hard labor in the 
summer time, a man will sometimes drink from ten to fif- 
teen pints of water in a day, without any injury to him- 
self. 

An English scientist, Hutchison, who has studied the 
matter of diet, says that the following bill of fare will 
well nourish a man at moderate labor : 

Breakfast — 

2 thick slices of bread well buttered 
2 eggs 

Dinner — 

1 plateful of good soup 

1 large helping of meat with some fat 

4 moderately large potatoes 

1 thick slice of bread well buttered 

Supper — 

1 glass of milk 

2 slices bread well buttered 
2 ounces of cheese 

Of course, the man should sometimes have fruit, and 
the kind of meat should vary from day to day, as beef, 
chicken, mutton, or pork. Besides, other vegetables than 
potatoes should sometimes be added. 



FOODS 163 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. What enables us to taste anything? 

2. Name three animal foods; three vegetable foods. What 
other kinds of foods are there? 

3. Of all foods, which is most important? Why? 

4. What happens to milk if it is not kept clean and cold? 

5. What is butter? 

6. What are the best kinds of meat? 

7. Why do we put yeast in bread? 

8. What is a cereal? 

9. If we chew wheat, what is left in our mouths? What 
has made the substance? 

10. Why is it injurious to drink much coffee or tea? 

11. What is meant by diet? 

12. Should all persons eat the same quantity and kind of 
food? Explain why? 

13. Why should we not eat between meals? 

14. What is the difference between a carbohydrate food and 
a proteid food? Name examples of each. 

15., What substances do we find in a potato? 



CHAPTER XV 



COOKING 



The value of fire, as an aid to man in the preparation 
of his food, was a great discovery. Man is the only ani- 
mal that cooks his food. That is because he cannot easily 
digest wheat, or corn, or many of the vegetables in their 
raw state. He can digest fruits without cooking them, 
and they are often just as good for him in the raw state 
as when cooked. Horses and cows can digest uncooked 
cereals, as well as hay, and straw; and hogs can digest 
any kind of food, cooked or uncooked. 

Cooking makes food softer and more delicate. It de- 
velops flavors, produces important chemical changes, and 
destroys parasites, like trichina. The different modes of 
cooking are roasting, baking, boiling, stewing, broiling, 
and frying. 

COOKING MEATS 

To cook meats properly, they should be introduced into 
a hot oven if they are to be baked, or roasted; into boil- 
ing water if they are to be boiled; or into a hot frying 
pan, or skillet, if they are to be fried. Unless meat is 
heated quickly the juices will ooze out as the heat is 

applied. 

164 



COOKING 165 

Roasting. — When a piece of beef, a turkey, or a chicken 
is put into a hot oven to be roasted, all surface cells are 
instantly sealed by the heat. This keeps most of the 
juices in the mass of the meat, and the delicious flavors 
which develop are prevented from escaping. The meat 
is thus made sweeter, more toothsome, and more digestible. 
When roasting is being done, it greatly helps matters 
to open the oven door occasionally, and with a long-handled 
spoon dip up the juices which ooze from the meat, and 
pour them over it again. This is called basting. Basting 
improves the flavor and digestibility of all roasted meats. 

Boiling. — If a piece of meat for boiling is put into cold 
water, and then put over the fire, the water, as it gradually 
becomes hot, extracts all the juices from the meat and 
makes a good soup. The meat, however, is left a mass 
of flavorless fiber difficult to digest. When the meat is 
desired for food, it should be put into boiling water for the 
same reason that the roast is put into a hot oven. 

Frying. — In frying, meat is cooked very hard. The fat 
is drawn out of it, and the proteid does not undergo the 
proper chemical changes. For these reasons frying is not 
considered a good method of cooking meats. An excep- 
tion to this rule is bacon, which is mostly fat, and has 
very little proteid to be made hard and tough. 

Broiling. — Broiling over coals, or over small blue gas 
flames, is the best method of cooking steaks and chops. 
There is a marked difference in flavor, taste, tenderness, 
and digestibility between meats which have been broiled, 
and those which have been fried. This is because of the 



166 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

difference in the methods of applying the heat. In broil- 
ing over coals, or blue gas flames, the outside cells are 
instantly sealed over, and the juices and flavors, as in 
the case of roasting, are kept in the meat. More of the 
fat is also retained, and this makes the fiber of the meat 
tender and digestible. In frying, the heat is not direct, 
but is applied through iron, and as the juices and fat 
run out of the meat, it soaks and sizzles in them, and 
the proteids are made hard and indigestible. 

BREAD BAKING 

Bread must be well baked to kill the yeast in it, to 
change the raw starch into soluble starch and into a 
gummy substance called dextrin, and to make the gluten 
digestible. If the interior of a loaf of bread smells of 
yeast or is heavy and sodden, it is unfit to eat. 

Toast is bread baked a second time. It is more digest- 
ible than even well-baked bread, because the toasting, or 
second baking, insures the killing of every yeast cell, and 
also turns more of the starch into dextrin, which is sweet 
and soluble. 

COOKING VEGETABLES 

Most vegetables should be cooked in soft water and for 
a long time. It is almost impossible to cook vegetables 
properly in hard well water, for the lime in the water 
hardens them, and prevents the flavor from developing. 
Such vegetables as cabbage, turnips, and carrots can hardly 
be cooked too long to make their tissues soft enough to be 
easily digested. 



COOKING 167 

Potatoes may be baked, boiled, stewed, or fried. They 
are good food prepared in any of these ways, but baking 
seems the best method. Potatoes are often made unwhole- 
some by cutting them into small pieces and frying in fat, 
because the starch grains become coated with fat and the 
saliva cannot act upon them. 

Dried beans and peas should be soaked in soft water for 
several hours before they are placed over the fire. The 
water in which they are boiled should be soft, and should 
have a little salt in it. They should be slowly cooked for 
several hours, for in no other way can they be made soft, 
and the starch and proteid they contain be made digestible. 
Beans may be baked after they have been well boiled, and 
this gives them a very pleasant flavor. 

Rice should be soaked for several hours, and finally 
cooked slowly in a steamer or double boiler. Oatmeal 
and breakfast foods should also be cooked in a double 
boiler. 

Tomatoes are fruit, for they contain within their meat 
or pulp, the seeds which are the real fruit. They are, how- 
ever, usually regarded as vegetables. They are wholesome 
either raw, baked, or stewed. They make an excellent 
sauce for meats because of their delicate flavor. 

Turnips, to be cooked properly, should be peeled, cut' 
into small pieces, and slowly stewed until perfectly soft. 

Onions also must be slowly stewed until soft, and if a 
cream made of milk and flour is poured over them, they 
make an excellent dish. Some persons do not like onions 



168 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

in any form, but they are, nevertheless, a thoroughly 
wholesome and nutritious food. 

Cabbage, cooked, is not as digestible as it is in the raw 
state, though a little cooked cabbage is not harmful, and 
working men with strong digestion can eat it with ad- 
vantage. It is singular that cooking does not improve 
cabbage as an article of diet. 

SOUPS 

The value of soups as an article of diet is well known. 
There are many varieties of soups, and many methods 
of making them. Vegetable soup is the most common. 
The first step is to boil some beef in water, putting it in 
before the water has reached the boiling point, for the 
warm water better extracts the juices. This is the very 
thing we do not wish to have happen when the meat is 
boiled to be eaten. The pot and contents are then 
set aside for a time, when the grease is skimmed off. The 
liquid which remains contains the flavors and extracts 
from the beef. Into this is put chopped potatoes, peas, 
cabbage, or, indeed, any soup vegetables desired. After 
boiling again the soup is ready for the table. 

Bouillon is made simply by heating, not boiling, meat 
in water. When it is boiled, only the extracts are taken 
from the beef, and no proteids pass into the solution; 
they are coagulated, that is, hardened and made insoluble. 
Beef tea which has been boiled, contains very little nutri- 
tion; it is simply a stimulant. 

A good soup may be made of tomatoes by gently stewing 
together with water or milk, tomatoes, flour, and butter. 



COOKING 169 

Soups are exceedingly wholesome, and we do well to 
begin our dinner with them. They furnish an excellent 
way of supplying water to the system. Of course, we can 
supply water by drinking it, but the water in soups and 
milk also, is intimately associated with nutritive material, 
and in such association it has an especial value as food. 
For the water in our cells is not simply soaked up, as by 
a sponge, but it is an intimate part of the cells. It is said 
to have become organized. 

PRESERVED FOODS 

Meats are preserved by salt and smoking. Ham and 
bacon are so prepared and are wholesome foods when 
eaten in moderation. Beef is corned, or preserved, by soak- 
ing it in strong salt water. 

All kinds of foods may be preserved by canning. Cooked 
foods will soon spoil unless put while very hot into cans, 
or jars, and quickly sealed up. When this is done they 
keep well. Foods spoil because moulds and germs fall 
upon them from the air. These moulds grow in the foods, 
making them sour and mouldy and sometimes even poison- 
ous. The idea in preserving is to kill all the germs by 
heat, and then keep other germs from coming into con- 
tact with the foods. The salted and smoked meats keep 
because germs cannot grow in salt, nor in the products of 
smoke. 

Drying will preserve foods. The Indians keep venison 
by drying it. If apples and peaches are dried they will 
not spoil. There are plenty of germs on these, but germs 



170 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

cannot grow unless they have water. This explains why 
dried fruit keeps so long. 

Use of Chemicals. — The laws of most states forbid 
preserving foods by means of chemicals. This is because 
the chemicals used in preserving are injurious to health. 
Formaldehyde, borax, and various acids are used, the 
first named being the least injurious. In spite of the law. 
the greed and avarice of some men lead them to preserve 
milk with formaldehyde. The courts punish such men 
severely, when they are caught and proved guilty. 

Preserving by Cold, — Ferments, moulds, and germs can- 
not live when the temperature is cold, and therefore we 
can preserve foods by keeping them away from heat. Re- 
frigerators furnish the means of keeping foods where 
the temperature is low. In the cities there are great cold 
storage warehouses, in which eggs, butter, meats, fruits, 
and other perishable foods, are preserved until wanted. 
The railroads have refrigerator cars, and steamboats and 
ships have cold storage rooms for transporting meats and 
fruits to market. Food preserved by cold storage is whole- 
some, unless by carelessness, accident, or ignorance it has 
been spoiled. 

Pickling. — Vinegar and spices will not support the life 
of moulds or germs, and therefore they are used for pre- 
serving. Cucumbers are most commonly treated in this 
way, but peaches and meats are also pickled. When eaten 
in moderate quantities, pickles are not unwholesome. 

Adulteration. — When butter has a good deal of water 



COOKING 171 

churned into it, when maple sugar has had glucose added 
to it, when ground pepper has been mixed with ground 
cocoanut shells, they are adulterated. Adulteration is not 
generally injurious to health, but it is always fraudulent 
and wrong, and is forbidden by law. Water in milk does 
not cause ill health, but it is against the law to sell water 
as milk. There are, however, some adulterants which are 
injurious to health. Among these are chemical preserva- 
tives like borax, salicylic acid, and formaldehyde, and the 
aniline dyes, which are sometimes added to jams, jellies, 
wines, catsups, and canned fruits. This subject will be 
dealt with more in detail in another chapter. 

QUESTIONS FOB EEVIEW 

1. Why should we cook our food? 

2. How many ways of cooking meat are there? Describe 
the process of roasting. 

3. In how many ways may a piece of meat for boiling be 
treated? What is the result in each case? 

4. Why is fried meat not so wholesome as roasted meat? 

5. In how many ways may food be preserved? 

6. What is meant by ' 'adulteration"? Is it ever the same 
as " preserving '"'? Explain. 



CHAPTER XVI 

ADULTERATED AND IMPURE FOODS 

Dishonest and avaricious men resort to all sorts of means 
to get money without giving an equivalent value for it. 
One of the common ways of doing this is to adulterate food 
materials, that is, to mix some cheaper stuff with good 
food material. 

MILK 



Milk is one of the things most commonly adulterated. 
It is so easy and simple to put water into milk that it is 
frequently done. This, of course, does not make the milk 
directly injurious, but the nutritive value of the milk 
is reduced. Children fed such milk are not properly 
nourished, do not grow well, are pale and bloodless, are, 
in fact, slowly starved. 

Milk sours easily, and every care must be taken to pre- 
vent this. The right and only admissible way, is to cool 
it down to not less than forty degrees immediately after 
it is drawn from the cow, and then keep it cool. This is 
troublesome, hence chemical preservatives are sometimes 
added. It has been found that formaldehyde, which is 
very cheap, will prevent milk from souring when added 
in very small quantities. Other substances such as borax 
will preserve milk. These are injurious to the health, 
and are forbidden by law, but dishonest men will evade 

172 



ADULTEKATED AND IMPURE FOODS 173 

the law, if they can, or they are willing to take the 
chance of having to pay a fine out of their unjust profits. 
In cities, where so many frauds are practiced, milk in- 
spectors are constantly at work securing samples of milk 
and taking them to the chemist for analysis. 

Great as is the evil of adulterating milk with water, 
and of adding chemical preservatives, still greater is the 
collecting of milk in an uncleanly way. Milk taken from 
a sick cow, or one that is covered with barnyard filth, is 
unfit for human use. If the milk vessels are not perfectly 
clean and sweet, the milk may become poisonous. Unclean 
and improperly kept milk causes severe sickness in in- 
fants, and thousands of infants die every year from poison- 
ous milk. 

Poisons occur in unclean milk through the growth of 
bacteria, which fall in from the air of foul stables and 
barns. They also drop from the filthy flanks of the cow. 
Wherever there is a cow barn that is not clean and cows 
covered with filth, there are conditions which cause poison- 
ous milk, and such milk causes bowel diseases, and that 
common child's disease, cholera infantum, which kills in- 
fants by the thousand. 

Butter is adulterated by mixing it in emulsion with 
cooked starch, or by treating milk with pepsin the milk 
forms a soft solid jelly, which may be emulsified with but- 
ter. Butter is also adulterated with sweet tallow oils, 
or oleomargarine, which are cheaper and more abundant 
than butter fats. 

Cheese is adulterated with starch or flour. Sometimes 



174 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

the cream is taken from milk of which the cheese is to 
made, and a cheaper fat like cottonseed oil is substituted. 

Flour and com meal are not now mixed with other sub- 
stances. At one time these were adulterated not a little, 
but men found that for many reasons it did not pay, and 
now the only adulteration practiced is to mix them with 
inferior grades of flour as meal. 

White sugar is rarely, if ever, found to be adulterated. 
This is because all efforts to do so successfully and profit- 
ably have failed. Brown sugars are adulterated with 
water to make them weigh heavier. 

Candy is often highly colored and the coloring materials 
used are sometijnes poisonous or at least unwholesome. 
Cheap candies, having much color, should, therefore, be 
avoided. 

Syrups, Molasses. — Maple syrup is so commonly adulter- 
ated with ordinary molasses and glucose that it is almost 
impossible to find the pure article in stores. The addi- 
tion of cane molasses and glucose does not make it un- 
wholesome, but it is a fraud. If a person wants one 
thing and the merchant substitutes another, the purchaser 
is swindled. Syrups and molasses purchased in bulk are 
likely to be mixtures, but are not unwholesome. 

Jams, Jellies, Fruit Butters. — These goods are com- 
monly adulterated. Indeed, it is most difficult to purchase 
pure articles of this character in stores. They must be 
made at home if they are wanted pure. The cheap jams 






ADULTERATED AND IMPURE FOODS 175 

and jellies are not jams and jellies at all. They are simply 
glucose colored to imitate the fruit whose name they bear. 
The fraudulent food purveyor,, in order to make cheap 
raspberry jam, simply takes thick glucose, colors it red, 
and adds a little hay seed. 

Canned and, Preserved Fruits. — These are very likely to 
be colored with aniline dyes and treated to make them 
appear better than they really are. 

Catsup. — This food is often adulterated. The cheaper 
grades are made of tomato peelings boiled to a pulp, then 
thickened with flour, colored with aniline dye, and pre- 
served with chemicals. Cheap catsup is unfit to eat. 

Canned Meats. — First-class, high grade meats, are rarely 
put up in cans. The use of low grade meats for canning 
makes it necessary to color them, to add substances to give 
them flavor, and to treat them in different ways to make 
them appear good. Canned meats should be avoided, for 
they rarely are good, and sometimes are actually poison- 
ous, because of the existence in them of ptomaines. Pto- 
maines are poisons produced by germs growing in meats. 

Adulterants and Preservatives. — Substances injurious to 
health are rarely used for adulterants. It obviously would 
destroy one's business to put substances into food which 
would cause immediate sickness. However, some things 
are used which are unhealthful, such as plaster of paris, 
or white earth, in baking powder. The coloring matters 
usually used cannot be said to cause sickness, but they 
are foreign, and no person would color jams, jellies, and 



1^6 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

fruit butters at home. Chemical preservatives, excepting 
some such as salt, smoke, and sugar, are certainly un- 
wholesome. Adulterations as now found are to be objected 
to principally because they are fraudulent. 

Plain, Simple Food. — The lesson to be drawn from a 
study of prepared foods is to live plainly. Milk, flour, 
rice, hominy, oatmeal, sugar, potatoes, eggs, fresh fruits, 
good dried fruits, fresh beef, chicken, fish, ham, and bacon 
may always be had. These furnish all the elements we 
need to live well. Fruits and vegetables properly put up 
at home are undoubtedly good food. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. What is adulteration of food? 

2. Why are foods adulterated? 

3. Is watered milk injurious? 

4. Why is it wrong to sell watered milk? 

5. How should milk be cared for after it is taken from 
the cow? 

6. Why should the cow barn be kept clean? 

7. Why should a cow be brushed before milking begins? 

8. What can be said of colored candies? 

9. What are the objections to canned meats? 
10. What are the best and safest foods? 



CHAPTER XII 
CLOTHING 

Clothing is used primarily for protection. It protects 
the body from heat and cold; from the effects of wind; 
from rain, hail, or snow; and from external injuries and 
discomforts. It also helps to conserve the body tem- 
perature by keeping the pores of the skin open, and pre- 
venting interference with their natural functions. 

The character of the material of clothing is important. 
We must consider its texture, its color, its relation to 
moisture, its power of conducting heat, and its special 
adaptability to the particular uses to which it is to be put. 

Texture, — Impenetrable materials, such as leather and 
rubber, are wind proof, and are very warm. They are ex- 
cellent protective materials, but they retain the body mois- 
ture and prevent ventilation of the skin. 

Materials of loose texture hold a large amount of air, 
and as air is a poor conductor of heat, a loosely woven 
fabric prevents loss of body heat in still air, but its open- 
ness permits the wind to pass through. Furs make warm 
clothing for two reasons. The skin part is practically 
wind proof ; and the fur holds a thick layer of air, which is 
a nonconductor of heat, and prevents its escape. 

177 



178 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

Effect of Color. — White colored goods absorb heat slowly 
and so the people in hot countries use them a great deal 
for clothing. The Hindus in tropical India wear white 
clothing. Black fabrics absorb heat more rapidly. So, 
also, do those colored green, blue or brown, but in a less 
degree. Heat is reflected most by white and in a decreas- 
ing degree by shades of yellow, red, green and blue. 

Power to Conduct Heat. — Cotton and linen are the best 
conductors of heat, and wool and silk are poor conductors. 

Behavior Toward Moisture. — Water may be absorbed di- 
rectly into the substance of the fine fibers of cloth, or it 
may be retained in the spaces, or interstices, between the 
fibers. The moisture held in the substance of the fibers 
cannot be wrung out, and it is known as hygroscopic 
moisture. The moisture held in the spaces can be expelled 
by wringing. When clothed in woolen underwear, a per- 
spiring person feels less chilly sensation on resting than 
if he were clothed in linen or cotton cloth. This is be- 
cause materials of animal origin, like wool, are more 
hygroscopic than those from the vegetable kingdom. Linen 
or cotton goods cling to the moist body, but woolen goods 
do not. 

CLOTHING MATERIALS 

Skins and leather were the materials first used by man 
for clothing. We use leather for covering our feet and 
hands, and our furs are made from animal skins. Leather 
shoes are found to be excellent covering for the feet. 
Leather is hygroscopic and takes up perspiration from the 
feet to be given off to the air. This is not true of patent 



CLOTHING 179 

leather, and it, therefore, is not so healthful as ordinary 
leather. 

Fur is warm and impenetrable. It makes rich and ele- 
gant outer clothing. The furs made from the skins of 
seals, beavers, and silver foxes are highly prized. 

Woolen fabrics are poor conductors of heat, and are 
best for general purposes in all climates where wide and 
sudden changes in temperature occur. Wool and cotton 
are much woven together and thus the advantages of both 
are measurably gained. Cotton costs less than wool, and 
is added sometimes as an adulterant. For men, the outer 
clothing is quite generally made of woolen materials, even 
for summer wear. Women more frequently wear outer 
clothing of cotton goods. 

Coiton fabrics are made of the soft, curly fibers from the 
pods of the cotton plant. It is pure cellulose, the material 
which forms the skeleton of plants. It is easily spun 
into thread, and then woven into cloth. For general pur- 
poses cotton is the best of clothing materials. Its fibers 
hold but little moisture, it is a good conductor of heat, 
and does not shrink in washing. 

Linen is a fabric woven from the soft, pliable fiber from 
the outer covering of the flax plant. It is especially ex- 
cellent for sheetings, shirtings, handkerchiefs, towels, and 
outer garments. 



&° 



Silk is produced by silkworms. It is very hygroscopic, 
a poor conductor of heat, and a nonconductor of elec- 



180 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

tricity. It takes and retains dyes of the most beautiful 
colors, tints, and shades. Silk is much adulterated with 
linen, cotton, and woolen fibers. Chemists have succeeded 
in making artificial silk, which is really a useful fabric. 
Silk has a beautiful luster, and is esteemed as the richest 
and finest of fabrics. 

Rubier is obtained from the milky juice of the rubber 
tree, which must be treated with chemicals and heat be- 
fore it can be used for clothing. Eubber coats, overshoes, 
hat covers, and gloves are for special and not general uses. 

THE HYGIENE OF DRESS 

Clothing should fit the form. Comfort is the first con- 
sideration. Clothing should be as light as the season will 
permit and it should be dry, clean, and properly ventilated. 
The quantity should be no more than is necessary to keep 
the body warm. It is not wise to take off our woolens 
too early in the spring, nor should we put them on in the 
fall until they are actually needed. 

The idea as to quantity of clothing, is not to have so 
much as will be a burden and make us too warm, nor so 
little as to leave us cold and uncomfortable. The throat 
should not be wrapped except when the cold is very severe. 
The throat will stand exposure almost as well as the face, 
and if too much protected it is more liable to disease. 
The clothing should fit properly, but freedom of move- 
ment and circulation must be secured. Heavy thick head 
coverings should never be worn except in severely cold 
weather. The weight of the clothing should in the main 
be upon the shoulders. 



CLOTHING 181 

Tight clothing around the waist restrains the move- 
ments of the lungs and heart. This is, of course, very un- 
hygienic. Among the effects of tight lacing are headache, 
shortness of breath, dyspepsia, constipation, f aintness, cold 
feet, and many derangements of functional organs. 

Boots and shoes are of the greatest importance. There 
is hardly to be found among civilized adults such a thing 
as a normally shaped foot. This is because of the faulty 
boots and shoes that are worn. 

Shoes should fit comfortably. If too large much dis- 
comfort results, for blisters, corns, and bunions form. If 
too small not only the corns and bunions appear, but pains 
in the feet and sometimes actual deformity. High heels, 
and heels placed toward the middle of the foot are an 
abomination. Shoes so made should not be worn. It 
throws the weight of the body forward upon the toes, the 
ligaments are strained and the spinal column, ankles, and 
knees forced into wrong positions. Severe lameness has 
resulted from wearing high heeled shoes. 

Stockings and socks should fit properly. If too large, 
folds press upon the foot, causing abrasions, with dis- 
comfort, and the folds may press upon nerves bringing ill 
effects. The feet should be kept clean. Shut up as they 
are in close leather shoes, they should be bathed fre- 
quently. People who bathe daily need no advice about 
washing their feet, but those who bathe less frequently 
should have the wisdom to w r ash their feet at least as often 
as every other day. 

Tight or poorly fitting shoes sometimes cause a callous 
growth to form in the skin of the feet. These growths 
are called corns. Corns are quite troublesome, but can 



182 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



usually be avoided by care in selecting shoes of the proper 
size. Shoes that are either too tight or too loose are 
likely to produce corns. The shoes should be just roomy 
enough to allow the toes to assume their natural position, 
and they should be close-fitting around the ankle and 
instep, so as not to allow of chafing. Care in these re- 
spects, together with frequent bathing of the feet, will gen- 
erally prevent corns. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 



1. What is meant by the texture of clothing? 

2. Name five different materials used for clothing. 

3. Discuss color as a quality of clothing. 

4. How do different materials behave toward moisture? 

5. What is hygroscopic moisture? 

6. What things should be taken into consideration in deter- 
mining the amount of clothing to be worn? 

7. What is the best kind of clothing to wear in a variable 
climate? Why? 

8. What precautions are necessary in dressing the feet? 



CHAPTER XVIII 

BATHING AND CLEANLINESS 

Personal hygiene is very important. Our bodies must 
be kept clean if our skin is to be healthy, so that it can 
do its proper work, and we are to have good health. Be- 
sides, an unclean skin is always offensive in appearance 
and odor. The perspiration secreted by the sweat glands 
in the skin is constantly evaporating from the surface 
of the body, and fine particles of the skin are being con- 
tinually cast off. These are enclosed by the salt and other 
waste matters brought out by the sweat, and if all this 
matter is not washed off, it fills up the pores and causes 
sickness. Frequent bathing is necessary to keep the skin 
clean, and its pores clear of obstruction. 

HYGIENE OF BATHING 

Bathing, since it cleans the skin, helps it in the work 
it has to do. A dirty skin cannot perform its functions. 
Bathing helps to maintain the freshness of the skin; it 
also tones up the whole system and increases our 
strength. There need be no fear of catching cold from 
bathing. On the contrary, bathing, by keeping the skin 
active, relieves the mucous surfaces, and prevents colds. 
Bathing is such an excellent preventive of colds that 
many persons, for that purpose, take cold baths every 

183 



184 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



morning. It also prevents skin diseases, fevers, and in- 
ternal disorders. If the skin is dirty, the nutritive effects 
of food are greatly lessened. 

It is generally best to bathe before retiring at night. 
One should never bathe immediately after a meal. Some 
persons delight in a cold bath when they get up in the 
morning. They enjoy the cold water, and feel more vig- 
orous after it. A cold bath is attended with somewhat 




NS 



Hfr^ 



MU 




Fig. 61. — Folding Bath Tub with Heater, 
i, open ; n, closed. 

of a shock, the reaction from which generates a pleasant 
glow. But a cold morning bath is likely to prove too 
stimulating for weak persons. 

In houses not provided with a bathroom, a good sub- 
stitute can be secured in the folding bath tub, which does 
not take up much space in a room. It is usually provided 
with a convenient arrangement for heating the water. 
Every house should be provided with a bath tub of some 
kind, and it should be used frequently. 



BATHING AND CLEANLINESS 185 

KINDS OF BATHS 

Baths may be either hot, cold or warm, salt water or 
mineral water baths, Eussian or vapor baths, Turkish 
baths, or shower baths. 

Salt water bathing has a decided tonic effect. At sea- 
shore watering places, thousands bathe daily. It is con- 
sidered great sport, and, unless a person stays in the water 
too long and becomes tired, only good results. 

Mineral water baths can be taken at mineral springs. 
Mineral waters contain salt and other minerals which 
stimulate the skin, and have a tonic action. Such baths 
are much used for rheumatism, and skin diseases. 

The Turkish bath is highly esteemed by many. It com- 
mences with a sweat in a very hot room, followed by a 
shower of warm water, which gradually becomes cold. 
Then after drying and rubbing briskly, the bather lies 
down on a good bed with clean sheets, and rests, or takes 
a nap. 

The Eussian bath is a steam bath, followed by a plunge 
into cold water and brisk rubbing down, with a rest 
afterwards. 

The shower bath is the cleanest and most satisfying 
bath. Clean water continually flows over one in the shower 
bath, and the cleansing is very satisfactory. The shower 
comes from perforated pipes overhead, or at the sides, 
and the bather stands in a shallow marble basin, from 
which the water is rapidly drained away. 



186 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

Swimming is a fine combination of bathing and exer- 
cise. A swim every day in the summer time is "just the 
thing," as most boys can testify. 

PUBLIC BATHS 

The Eomans and other ancient nations must have known 
the value of bathing, for they constructed both private and 
public baths. Some of these baths were built of marble, 
and were great buildings in themselves. Not only did 
the rich bathe in their own elegant marble bath houses, but 
the government provided public baths for the common peo- 
ple and the poor. In this day, cities have public baths, 
where people can take a good bath at small cost. The city 
owns them, and they are kept for the people, just as 
streets are made for the people. Boston and other cities 
have such public baths. 

PERSONAL CLEANLINESS 

"Cleanliness is next to godliness" is a wise saying. A 
person who is not clean in his person is hardly likely to 
be clean in his heart and mind. To be clean we must 
not only bathe the body, but we must look to the hair, 
nails, ears, and mouth. Dirty hands and dirty finger- 
nails tell other persons much about one. Sometimes dis- 
ease germs get under the finger-nails, and, if we scratch 
open the skin with them, a sore results. The nails should 
be kept clean, so that such a thing may be impossible. 

The teeth should be brushed night and morning with 
a toothbrush, and the mouth should be washed out several 
times a day. A clean mouth promotes health. There 



BATHING AND CLEANLINESS 187 

would be less diphtheria, and fewer coughs and colds, if 
all persons kept their months clean, by washing with a 
mild antiseptic twice a day. Good antiseptic month- 
washes may be purchased of any druggist. 

CLEAN BEDCLOTHING 

Clean bedclothes are very necessary to health. Sheets 
and pillowcases should be changed frequently, blankets 
should be washed whenever soiled, and pillows, mattresses, 
and comforts should be aired every day, and very fre- 
quently placed in the sun. The sunshine and the air are 
the greatest disinfectants and purifiers. 

A CLEANLY PEOPLE 

Travelers tell us of the cleanliness of the Japanese. 
Every Japanese, even the laborer, who does the roughest 
work, bathes daily. Their clothes are clean, and they take 
off their shoes when they enter the house, to keep from 
carrying in dust and to avoid scratching the polished 
floors. Not only are the Japanese scrupulously clean in 
their persons, but they keep their houses and dooryards in 
the same condition. "In all Japan,'' says a traveler, 
"there cannot be found a dirty back yard." 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. Why is cleanliness necessary to health! 

2. Describe some of the different kinds of baths. 

3. What precautions are necessary in bathing? 

4. What are public baths? 

5. In what respects are the Japanese especially a cleanly 
people? 



CHAPTER XIX 

STIMULANTS AND NAECOTICS. 

ALCOHOL 

Alcohol is the best known stimulant. It is made by 
fermenting sugar with yeast. The manufacturer cooks 
ground grain, usually corn, to a mush, then adds malt, 
which turns the starch to glucose. He then adds a pure 
culture of yeast, and allows the mass to ferment. When 
fermentation is over the liquid is distilled — that is, it is 
passed through an apparatus called a still and the alcohol 
obtained. The object of distillation is to separate the 
light and volatile matters from those not wanted. 

In making whisky the product from the still is color- 
less and poisonous, but by storing it in barrels it takes 
up color from the wood, and the poisonous matters are 
destroyed by the oxygen of the air. Brandy is made by 
distilling wine, and wine proceeds from the action of fer- 
ments upon the sugar in grape juice. Ale and beer are 
made by fermenting malt which has been cooked with 
hops. The hops give to ale and beer a flavor and a slightly 
bitter taste. 

All of these substances owe their popularity to the stim- 
ulant, alcohol, which they contain, and they all do far 
more harm than good. Ttie secret of the healthy life is 
plain and temperate living. Stimulating and rich food, 

188 



STIMULANTS AND NAECOTICS 189 

with alcoholic liquors, break the health of all who indulge 
in them, and thousands are killed by them. 

Because a drink of whisky exhilarates one, causes stimu- 
lation and increased heart action, the mistaken idea pre- 
vails that muscular power and working ability are in- 
creased. There is no truth in this, but, on the contrary, 
there is a loss of muscular power and working ability. 
Alcohol is a frequent cause of unhappiness and loss to 
those who use it in any of its various forms. It is true 
that some persons use spirituous liquors for years with 
seemingly no marked ill results. This is only seeming, 
for close investigation shows that even the moderate use 
of alcohol does damage to the heart, the nerves, the bones, 
the stomach, the liver, the kidneys, the skin, and all other 
tissues. 

Spirituous liquors are never needed by persons in health 
and they are exceedingly dangerous to young persons. It 
is unwise to take them in moderate, or even in small quan- 
tities, for alcohol so frequently creates an appetite for its 
use in increasing quantities and ruins the life. The con- 
stant use of alcohol lowers intelligence and degrades the 
moral nature, often making a person mean and brutal. 

So well is it known that even moderate drinking brings 
loss of strength, loss of intelligence, loss of judgment and 
loss of moral power that railroad companies discharge em- 
ployees as soon as they find that they use strong drink. 
Who would consent to ride in a train knowing that the 
hand of the engineer was weak and trembling from drink, 
and that the senses were dulled and judgment clouded? 
There is only one wise way, and that is never to drink 
spirituous liquors even in moderate amounts. 



190 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

Drunkards are always made gradually. The young per- 
son starts out feeling that whisky will never master him, 
but the mastery comes so gradually and so insidiously that, 
before he knows it, he is powerless to resist. 

If one yields to temptation because he wants to be a 
good, sociable fellow, he shows a weakness. Stupidity can- 
not usually be helped, for, as with the color of the hair, 
one's stupidity is born in him, but the moral weakness 
which leads one to commence the drinking of spirituous 
liquors can and should be avoided. Total abstinence is 
the only safety for young and old. 

NARCOTICS 

Narcotics are drugs which generally soothe and dull the 
actions of the nerves and cause a tendency to sleep. They 
may also be stimulating. Alcohol is at first stimulating 
and then narcotic. The drunken man goes to sleep after 
the first effects of the liquors have w r orn off. 

Opium is a very dangerous drug. Morphine is contained 
in opium, and is the principle which produces sleep and 
the narcotic effects of opium. Tincture of opium or 
laudanum is simply opium in liquid form. Opium causes 
sleep and dulls the nerves. It is a drug that should be 
greatly feared. Its effect is always quite soothing and 
pleasant, and weak people are prone to use it to dull pain 
and relieve trouble, but it only leaves them weaker and 
likely to use it again. Its use, even only a few drops, may 
produce a craving for it that makes the victim 'ever after 
a slave, and may wreck both his health and his character. 

The habitual opium or morphine user is a pitiful object. 



STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 191 

He can have no comfort, no sleep, no enjoyment of life, 
unless he has taken the awful drug. He loses all sense of 
moral obligation, and generally becomes addicted to lying. 
Better by all odds suffer even severe pain than take 
morphine. 

Chloral is another pernicious drug. It is a real poison. 
Its effects are similar to those of morphine and it kills 
more rapidly. 

Cocaine is a worse narcotic than opium, alcohol, or 
chloral. It is an exceedingly dangerous drug. Its victims 
are most miserable wrecks. It is most enticing in its ef- 
fects at first, but finally its action is so longed for that the 
victim would even commit murder, and murder has been 
committed, to secure it. Cocaine has its medicinal uses, 
but only skilled physicians should administer it. It 
should never be taken on one's own judgment. 

HEADACHE POWDERS 

We should beware of headache powders. They contain 
acetanilid, which is a heart depressant. Patent medicine 
men mix acetanilid with bicarbonate of soda and caffein, 
the active principle of coffee, make them into powders or 
tablets, and sell them as a sure cure for headache and pain. 
These tablets do ease pain, but they have another effect 
which makes them dangerous. Some have formed the 
habit of using these powders or tablets, and find it hard to 
break away. One dose may cause serious symptoms and 
even death. 

The best rule is to avoid all drugs. They are some- 
times dangerous even in the hands of doctors. 



192 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

TOBACCO 

Tobacco is a very generally used narcotic, and it does 
much harm. The active principle of tobacco, nicotine, is 
a rank poison. Its effect in small quantities at first is to 
sicken one, cause him to vomit, and dizziness and paleness 
result. After a few doses, as secured in smoking a cigar 
or pipe, the nerves become accustomed to it, and, now 
being depraved by its drug action, begin to crave it. There 
can be no question about its ill effects particularly on 
young persons. 

The smoking and chewing of tobacco is useless, harm- 
ful and unnecessary. It does not act as a food, nor does 
it serve any useful purpose. It does reduce the strength 
and health of the nerves ; it checks the proper development 
and growth of young people ; it often causes heart trouble ; 
and it also sometimes injures the air passages. Cancer 
on the tongue and in the throat have been attributed to 
tobacco. 

The use of tobacco is an expensive habit, and, as its use 
is certainly deleterious, it is an extravagance. The money 
spent for it could be better expended where it would give 
more pleasure and profit. The user of tobacco carries dis- 
agreeable odors in his clothing and his breath. His smoke 
fills the room and befouls the air, which should be trans- 
parent and sweet. If he chews, his spitting makes him 
very offensive to refined people, and his breath, too, is of- 
fensive. The only excuse one can make for the use of 
tobacco is to confess that he has depraved his taste and 
his nerves, and that he now longs for the comfort it brings 
to the depraved conditions and appetites. 






STIMULANTS AND NAECOTICS 193 

SOME SPECIFIC EFFECTS OF THE USE OF ALCOHOL 
AND TOBACCO 

It is now well known from extended observation and 
careful experiments that the use of alcohol or tobacco 
prevents normal growth and development of the body. It 
is said that breeders of small dogs, "toy dogs/' as they are 
called, begin early to feed the puppies small quantities of 
wine or whisky in order to stunt the growth. In these 
days, when so much importance is attached to the proper 
development of our bodies, when every boy wants to be 
strong and athletic, this alone should be a reason sufficient 
to deter any sensible boy from the use of alcoholic drinks 
in any form. Indeed, so far reaching are the known ef- 
fects of stimulants and narcotics that children of parents 
who are intemperate in the use of these poisons often fail 
to develop into manhood or womanhood. They may not 
be deformed, but their growth and development is ar- 
rested. They remain small in body and childish in char- 
acter. 

The bones of persons who use these stimulants and 
narcotics do not grow to be of normal size. The bone tissue 
is lacking in strength and power of resistance so that their 
bones are more easily broken than those of persons who 
abstain from these things. When broken or otherwise in 
jured they require a much longer time to heal than they 
otherwise would. When union does take place it is often 
faulty; in some cases the fractured parts fail to unite 
and a special operation is necessary. 

The muscles are made weaker in proportion to the 
amount of alcohol or tobacco used. It is true that when a 



194 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

small amount of wine or whisky is taken there seems to be, 
for a short time, an increase of muscular energy, but 
when the stimulating effect has passed away the muscles 
are left weaker than before. If the use of the stimulant 
is repeated frequently the muscular force fails. 

With most persons the habitual use of alcoholic drinks 
has another bad effect upon the muscular system. The 
drinker becomes fleshy, fatty tissue becomes mixed with 
the muscle tissue, and the strength of the muscle is weak- 
ened. 

The fact that an athlete in training is never allowed 
to use stimulants or narcotics of any kind shows how well 
known is the effect of these things upon the muscles. 

The heart is peculiarly affected by both alcohol and to- 
bacco. Alcohol stimulates its action — makes it beat faster. 
But as soon as the first excitement passes there is a re- 
action, the heart is weakened, is tired from overexertion, 
the alcohol reaches the muscle fibers of the heart and ar- 
teries and saps their strength. All are weaker than be- 
fore, j The day after having drunk much alcoholic liquor 
a man always feels weaker, depressed, "not up to the 
mark." Frequent repetitions of these excesses will weaken 
the heart. 

Just as the use of alcoholics develops fatty tissue in the 
other muscles, it does in the muscular tissues of the heart, 
and the consequence is "fatty degeneration of the heart," 
a very dangerous form of heart disease. 

Tobacco has a depressing effect on the heart. It weakens 
its force. This is especially true in the case of those who 
begin the use of tobacco while young. What is known as 



STIMULANTS AND NAKCOTICS 195 

"tobacco heart' ' is common among users of tobacco, and 
the results are often fatal. 

Digestion is seriously interfered with by the use of alco- 
hol or tobacco. Alcohol has a strong affinity for water. If 
a small slice of beefsteak be placed in even diluted alcohol 
for two or three hours, it will be found hard and shrunken. 
The alcohol has taken the water out of the meat. It does 
precisely the same when taken into the stomach. To make 
up for the water taken out of the mucous lining by the 
alcohol there is an increased flow of blood to that part. 
This produces inflammation, or congestion, of the stomach. 
An inebriate usually suffers from indigestion, dyspepsia, 
or even neuralgia, of the stomach. In time ulcers are 
formed in the mucous coat. These spread over the surface 
and destroy the glands. Sometimes they eat through the 
stomach and cause death. 

The liver, pancreas and small intestines also suffer from 
the effects of alcohol. But in the liver, especially, there 
are marked changes owing to the continual state of con- 
gestion produced. At first it becomes enlarged and soft, 
and later it hardens and contracts. The tissues lose their 
power to work properly. The bile secreted becomes un- 
natural and fails to do its share in the process of diges- 
tion. Biliousness is common among drinkers, and in- 
ebriates often have the liver so hardened and lumpy that 
it is called cr hob-nail liver." 

The effects of the use of tobacco upon digestion are simi- 
lar, though not so marked. Indigestion and loss of ap- 
petite is a common result of the use of tobacco. 

The eliminative organs suffer with the rest of the body 



196 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

by the use of alcohol and tobacco. The kidneys are very 
delicate organs, and in the eliminative process some of the 
poison passes through them and injures the tissues. One 
of these diseased conditions is known as Bright's disease. 
When the work of one set of eliminative organs is inter- 
rupted extra work is thrown upon the others, or the waste 
matters are retained as poison in the system. 

The drinking of alcoholic liquor increases for a time the 
action of the heart and forces more blood into the arteries. 
At the same time the muscular tension in the coats of the 
bloodvessels is relaxed so that the small bloodvessels at 
the surface of the body are distended. There is an increase 
of blood in the skin ; hence the face becomes flushed. Fre- 
quent use of alcohol causes a constantly flushed condition 
of the skin, until in certain parts, especially the face and 
hands, the bloodvessels become permanently dilated. This 
accounts for the characteristic "toper's nose/' In other 
parts of the body the skin assumes a dark brown color. 
In this condition the skin is more susceptible to disease 
and much more difficult to treat. 

The nervous system is especially susceptible to the in- 
fluence of stimulants and narcotics, because it is through 
the brain and nerves that these drugs act. It is said that 
alcohol is deposited in the brain and liver more than in 
any of the other organs. In its effect upon the nervous 
system there seem to be several stages. 

First — Stimulation through increased circulation and 
consequent flushing of the skin. This is attended by more 
or less mental excitement, with a tendency to talk more 



STIMULANTS AND NABCOTICS 197 

freely and rapidly. This stage is injurious in proportion 
to the frequency of the repetition. 

Second — When more alcohol is taken into the system the 
voluntary muscles become affected. The mind acting 
through the nerves can no longer control the muscles. 
The drinker becomes unsteady on his feet and his speech 
is indistinct. There is also loss of mental balance, lack 
of judgment and common sense. The drinker does and 
says what he would not do or say when not drinking. 

Third — There is further loss of control. The mind is 
obscured; the drinker talks and laughs immoderately, be- 
comes silly, or perhaps quarrelsome and passionate. His 
movements are more unsteady. If he attempts to walk 
he reels and falls helpless wherever he may be. 

Fourth — The victim becomes "dead drunk" — that is, 
passes into a condition of drunken stupor in which the 
senses are practically all dead. Only such nerves and 
muscles as control the process of respiration and circula- 
tion are active, and these in a very weak and imperfect 
way. In this stage death may occur at any moment, 
through failure of the life processes; and in his utterly 
helpless condition the drunkard is exposed to death from 
accident in many ways. 

The net result of even a moderate use of alcohol on the 
nervous system is, therefore, weakness, lack of control, a 
tendency to resort to the stimulant more frequently and 
in larger quantity, and ultimately an irresistible craving 
for liquor that has come to be regarded as a disease known 
as alcoholism. 



198 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

The action of tobacco on the nerves is that of a narcotic 
poison, nicotine, a very strong and fatal poison. A single 
drop of nicotine will kill a rabbit in a few minutes. It 
is the nicotine which makes the beginner in the use of 
tobacco sick. By beginning gradually the system learns 
to withstand a certain amount of this poison, but in doing 
so the organs are weakened., and the power of the body to 
resist the attacks of disease is lessened. The effect of the 
use of tobacco is well shown when the user tries to do 
without it for a time. He becomes nervous, impatient, 
irritable and depressed. He cannot do his work as well 
as usual. His hand is unsteady, his heart-beat is irregular, 
his mind is not clear; he probably suffers from headaches 
and loss of appetite. The younger the person the more 
marked are all these effects. 

The use of cigarettes is especially to be condemned, be- 
cause the smoke is commonly so mild that it is uncon- 
sciously taken into the lungs, and the nicotine finds its 
way at once into the blood. Moreover, cigarettes some- 
times contain opium, and, hence, a double dose of poison. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. What is alcohol? How is it produced? 

2. Name several liquors containing alcohol. 

3. Why do some persons drink alcoholic liquors? 

4. How are drinkers regarded by many employers of labor? 

5. What is a narcotic? 

6. What is the effect on the senses of using tobacco? 

7. What can be said regarding the expense of using tobacco 
regularly? 

8. What are the effects of alcohol and tobacco upon the 
muscles? 

9. Why does alcohol seem to make one warmer and 
stronger? 



CHAPTER XX 
HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 

Our homes and school buildings should be healthful. It 
is not wise to erect buildings without due regard to hy- 
gienic and sanitary conditions. 

Houses should be free from dampness, ground air should 
be excluded, and the heating, ventilating, and lighting 
should be the best that can be secured. 

The Site. — Farmers have the advantage over those liv- 
ing in cities when it comes to selecting a site for a house. 
They can usually choose an elevated location which is 
drier than the lower areas, and which may be easily 
drained. Further, they can have light and air from all 
sides, most important matters for health and abundant 
life. Not to have dry ground upon which to build a house 
is indeed unfortunate, for damp earth means damp house, 
and a damp house means rheumatism and respiratory dis- 
eases for those who live in it. Lord Bacon said: "He 
who builds a fair house upon an ill seat committeth him- 
self to prison." 

Trees close to a house are objectionable, for they pre- 
vent the free access of air and light, and favor damp- 
ness. 

Building Materials. — The building materials at our 

199 



200 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

command are wood, stone, brick, and concrete, and these 
are all excellent. The early pioneers built their houses 
of logs with great fireplaces in the rooms. Such houses 
were well ventilated but usually poorly lighted. Out on 
the plains and prairies the first houses were made of sod, 
and were called sod houses. They were not sanitary, but 
they gave protection. 

The Foundation. — When the site and building materials 
have been selected, then the next step is to construct 
the foundation and basement. It is best to have a dry, 
cemented cellar under the whole house. However, the 
house will be passably sanitary if the cellar, dry and ce- 
mented, extends under part of the house, and the house 
is at least three feet above the level of the ground. Thor- 
ough ventilation must be provided for the cellar and all 
underneath areas. All of this is necessary in order to 
prevent ground air from entering the rooms above. Ground 
air contains gases and odors produced by the decomposition 
of organic matters in the ground. This objectionable air 
is pushed upward into the house when it rains, for the 
water sinks into the ground and displaces it. All have 
noticed that in houses built flat upon the ground there is 
a musty or queer smell shortly after it rains; this is the 
ground air and it is unwholesome. 

In considering foundations it is well to remember that 
ordinary brick is very porous and absorbs water freely, 
and that therefore it will not do for foundation work un- 
less certain precautions are taken. If the foundation is 
ordinary brick there should be a layer of slate, stone, ce- 
ment, or vitrified brick, just above the ground level. This 



HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 201 

will prevent the moisture of the ground from rising into 
the house through the brick, because, when it comes to 
the layer of impervious material, it cannot rise further. 
Upon such a foundation it is permissible to build any 
kind of house. Stone and concrete make the best founda- 
tions. 

Frame houses are cheaper than brick, or stone, and can 
be made as warm and sanitary. The first sanitary re- 
quirement, even in dry well drained ground, is to build 
the house well up above the ground. The outside walls 
should first be covered with ordinary dressed boards, sheet- 
ing, then with building paper, and after that with weather 
boarding. The two layers of boards with the thick paper 
between make a good armor to keep out cold in winter and 
heat in summer. The best inside covering for walls is 
wall plaster. This is used alike for frame, brick, and 
stone houses. 

The plaster may be finished by wall paper, which aids in 
keeping out cold, although it is very thin; and, it is also 
ornamental. Cellar walls, if not finished with cement 
or plaster, should be regularly whitewashed. Plaster may 
also be finished with oil paint. Painted walls are espe- 
cially good in kitchens, bathrooms, and laundries, for such 
walls are nonabsorbent, are not injured by steam, and 
may be washed off. 

Wall paper, if it has green color upon it, is likely to con- 
tain arsenic, for some greens are made with this poison. 
There is, however, little danger nowadays from arsenical 
wall papers, for the dealers and makers know that they 
are condemned. 



202 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

Windows should open directly into the open air. It is a 
grave hygienic error not to have plenty of window space 
in each room. It. is only through windows that light 
enters, and through them., too, we secure the air we so 
much need. It can be determined whether a room has 
sufficient window space by measuring the floor area and 
taking one-sixth of it. The quotient will be the area the 
windows should have. By measuring the windows, their 
area may be determined. A little room up under the roof 
with a little gable window, is not a sanitary bedroom. Sleep- 
ing in such rooms, which do not receive enough sunlight in 
day time and enough air at night, induces consumption. 

Floors should be of hard wood, if possible, and made 
smooth and tight. The wood should be filled with wax to 
make it impervious. Such floors can be kept clean and 
free from dust. 

Carpets which are tacked to the floor are not sanitary, 
for they soon become filled with dust. It is best to have tight, 
smooth, hard wood, waxed floors, and use rugs. Eugs may 
be easily taken out and the dust and dirt beaten out of 
them in the open air. 

The dust must be banished from our houses as com- 
pletely as possible to gain sanitary surroundings. Dust 
carries germs, ferments, and moulds, and it must be kept 
down. Dusting should be done by wiping with a slightly 
damp cloth, for to use a feather duster is simply to drive 
the dust back into the air, where it is far more objectionable. 
On floors, woodwork, and furniture, a feather duster or 
dustbrush should never be used. 









HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 203 

Sweeping as ordinarily done is very unsanitary, for the 
dust is raised. If fastened-down carpets are to be swept, 
the broom should be dampened and damp tea leaves, which 
have been used, should be sprinkled around on the carpet 
before sweeping begins. These leaves will keep down dust 
and brighten the carpet. Mechanical sweepers with re- 
volving brushes to force the dust and dirt into a tight box 
are valuable. 

SCHOOLHOTJSES AND SCHOOL HYGIENE 

As in the case of the dwelling house, the schoolhouse 
site should be high, dry, and well drained. Made ground, 
that is, land that has been filled in with ashes, rubbish, 
and the like, is bad ground on which to build any kind 
of a house. The air and moisture arising from such 
ground is foul with bad gases. When possible a good 
gravelly soil should be secured. The schoolhouse should 
have an abundance of light and air on all sides, and hence 
the site should be at a distance from other buildings, and 
especially away from noise-making industries. 

The Schoolhouse. — It is unnecessary here to consider 
more than the hygienic conditions and sanitary arrange- 
ments which should exist in every schoolroom. All school- 
houses should have dry, well ventilated cellars beneath 
them. This is true for even one room schoolhouses. It 
is unfortunate that so many schoolhouses do not have 
cellars. Cellars are necessary in order to keep out ground 
air and to keep the floor warm. Schoolhouses, also, should 
be at least three feet above the ground level. Of what- 
ever material, they should be well constructed and kept in 



204 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

good repair. The foundation should be of stone or con- 
crete, but if of brick, there should be a layer of slate 
or vitrified brick to keep the moisture down. Vitrified 
brick are burned very hard and until a glaze forms over 
them. They are impervious and make good foundation 
material. 

The schoolroom should have high ceilings, not less than 
twelve feet from the floor. The floors should be hard wood 
and oiled or waxed to keep the dirt and dust out of the wood 
pores and cracks. The windows should be on one side of 
the room only, and their glass area should be not less 
than one-fifth of the floor area. They should, whenever 
possible, be on the left side of the pupil, and should reach 
almost to the ceiling. By this method cross lights are 
avoided, and an abundance of light secured for the entire 
room. Light should fall over the left shoulder to avoid 
shadows on the paper while writing. Cross lights, that 
is, light entering from both sides of the room, sometimes 
cause eye strain. There should be adjustable shades of 
some neutral tint at all windows. They are necessary 
in order to temper and properly regulate the light. It is 
harmful to the eyes and the general health to be com- 
pelled to look into the light, hence, there should be no 
windows at the ends of the schoolroom. Pupils should 
not sit where they are compelled to look continuously into 
the light. 

The walls of schoolrooms should have a neutral tint 
of green, yellow or blue. They should not be a glaring- 
white, as it hurts the eyes. Blackboards should be a dead 
black, for glossy surfaces reflect glinting light, and hurt 
the eyes. Slate blackboards are good. 



HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



205 



Warming and Ventilating. — The warming of school- 
rooms by stoves should be prohibited. They warm the same 
air over and over and every time fuel is supplied the school 
is disturbed. Besides this., they do not warm the room 




/ 



l 



^ ) > ) 



rs. 



\ j 



I 



\ 



^ 



II 



Showing circulation of air in 
a room having a fresh air duct, 
a b, and a fireplace. 



Fig. 62. — Showing movement 
of air currents in a room with 
fireplace and gas jets. 

evenly, and. while the children near the stove are too 
warm, those away from it are cold, all are uncomfortable, 
and hence cannot study and progress as they should. For 
these reasons stoves are bad and not economical. 

Many kinds of ventilating stoves have been invented. 
But they all take up valuable space and must be fed and 
attended to in the schoolroom. A sheet iron jacket 
around the stove prevents the overheating of those near 
the fire, and also insures a better distribution of the heat 
throughout the room. And, if a pipe leads through the 
floor from an opening under the stove out into the open 
air, then fresh air enters through this duct and is warmed 
and distributed. In this way, conditions are slightly 
improved. 

Furnaces and Steam Coils. — Schoolhouses should be 
heated and ventilated by furnaces, or by steam coils over 



206 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 



which fresh air from the outside passes, is warmed, and 
then delivered by pipes into the rooms from the registers 
at least seven feet above the floor. Warm air rises to 
the ceiling, and this happens no matter where the register 
is placed. If the register is in the floor, dirt falls through 
it into the pipe when the floors are swept, or by walking 
over it; and, besides, those who sit near are made too 
warm. The floor is not the place for a hot air register. 



r 



<v 



\ 



V 



■1- 






Fig. 63. 



The diagrams show the movement of warm air when in- 
troduced into a room in one place and removed at differ- 
ent places. In all but one it is seen that the air circu- 
lates in only a part of the room, leaving certain areas 
unwarmed and unventilated. In this one the circulation is 
general. The experiments, therefore, show that the hot 
air should be introduced at about seven feet above the 
floor, and the foul air taken out on the same side near the 
floor. In all schoolhouses of over eight rooms there 
should be an engine to force air over steam coils and into 
the rooms. Where air is forced in in this way, the sys- 



HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



207 



tern is termed forced ventilation; and when the air is con- 
ducted in by simply allowing it to rise in the pipes, the 
system is called gravity ventilation. 



i 



Fig. 64.— Showing Plan of Di- 
rect-Indirect Heating. 




Showing How a Stove Heats a 
Room. 



Heating by steam radiators in the room is as wrong 
as heating by stoves. This is called direct heating, win- 
dows and doors being depended upon for ventilating. 
Health authorities condemn direct steam heating of school- 
rooms, and also stove heating. If behind each steam ra- 
diator there is a pipe through the wall to introduce fresh 
air which must pass over the hot pipes, some good is done. 
This system is called direct-indirect steam heating. It is 
not recommended by sanitarians for schoolrooms. 

QUANTITY OF AIR AND HUMIDITY 

Each pupil should have thirty cubic feet of air every 
minute, and it is impossible to give this quantity by win- 
dows and doors, without causing draughts. Air is abso- 
lutely necessary to health, and to supply less than each 
pupil requires is to violate nature's laws. In the chapter 
on breathing this is all made plain. The space required 



208 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

by each pupil is not less than 180 cubic feet. Measure 
the room, multiply the length, width, and height together, 
and divide this by 180. The quotient will be the number 
of pupils that should be allowed to be in this room. 
Crowded schoolrooms are very bad. It is not economy 
to crowd children into schoolrooms. It is a wrong to the 
children, for it imposes conditions of ill health upon them. 
In crowded schoolrooms headache, eye ache, coughs, and 
colds abound. Diphtheria and scarlet fever are more 
likely to break out in small rooms. If a schoolhouse is 
old, and there is no provision for ventilation except win- 
dows and doors and leakage of air through cracks, the air 
is certain to become foul. When the nose, after one has 
been out-of-doors, detects the least odor in the air of a 
schoolroom, then we may be sure the air is bad. When 
the air is bad, a look around the room will discover tired 
looking children, gaping, listless and sleepy. Perhaps the 
teacher, too, will become tired and impatient; all are dis- 
qualified for work. And it is no wonder, for the bad air 
causes just such conditions. 

When these conditions prevail, study and recitations 
should stop; the windows should be raised, and all should 
engage in arm and body exercises, with deep breathing, 
until the room is flooded with fresh air. This will 
brighten up every one, and tend to ward off any sickness 
which the foul air might induce. 

HUMIDITY 

Humidity has reference to the amount of moisture the 
air contains. It is necessary for health that the air con- 
tain moisture, for if it is quite dry, it takes moisture from 



HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 209 

our throats and noses, making us more liable to catarrh 
and head colds. The absence of water vapor in the air 
frequently causes the overheating of schoolrooms. This 
is because, when the air is too dry. the tendency of the 
body is to make up the deficiency. The increased per- 
spiration is rapidly evaporated and this cools the body. 
The person feels cold even though the temperature of the 
room is high. This is conducive to colds and rheumatism 
and general sickness. It is an abnormal condition which 
causes derangement of the bodily functions. 

Measuring Humidity and Temperature. — Air holds vary- 
ing quantities of moisture according to the temperature. 
and whatever the amount may be at any time, that is the 
absolute humidity. Warm air is capable of holding more 
moisture than cold air. When the air becomes saturated. 
that is, when it can hold no more, it is said to be at the 
point. 

Relative humidity is the degree of approach to satura- 
tion at any given temperature. Thus 30 degrees relative 
humidity, means that at the observed temperature, the air 
holds but 30 per cent of the amount it is capable of hold- 
ing. 

By experiments it has been learned that, if the relative 
humidity is GO degrees, we are perfectly comfortable in 
a temperature of 65 degrees. If the relative humidity 
is 30 or 40 degrees, we are chilly, although the tempera- 
ture is 75 degrees. Xow to raise the temperature ten 
degrees in a room requires fuel, and the cost for fuel to 
secure this increased heat is about 12 to 14 per cent above 



210 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

the amount required for heating a room to 65 degrees. If 
there is no attention paid to seeing that the humidity and 
temperature of the schoolroom are what they should be, 
then the conditions for sickness exist, and the cost of 
heating is more than it should be. It is always health 
and economy to obey nature's laws. We are practical only 
when we do so. 

Watery vapor exerts a most important influence. In 
the daytime it tempers the sun's heat, and at night it 
acts as a protecting blanket to the earth by preventing too 
great loss of heat by radiation. On mountains, where the 
blanket of vapor is usually thin, the fall in temperature is 
rapid and marked. If watery vapor is absent from the 
air, the cooling process begins as soon as the sun goes down. 
The first frosts of autumn, and those which come occasion- 
ally in the middle and later parts of spring, occur only on 
very clear nights, when the relative humidity of the air 
is low. The belief that night air is unhealthful proceeds 
in some degree from these facts. It is the rapid cooling, 
as explained, which causes chill, and when one is suddenly 
chilled the pores are closed, the cells are contracted, and 
more or less discomfort results. 

The relative humidity of the air in a room should not 
be allowed to drop below 60 per cent. All furnaces are 
provided with a shallow tank in which water is placed for 
the purpose of evaporation. Where stoves are used for 
heating, a dish containing water should be kept on the 
stove. This will tend to keep the relative humidity of the 
air in the room at the proper point. The instrument used 
to measure the humidity of the atmosphere is called a 
hygrometer. 



HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 211 

Temperature. — All bodies receive or part with heat as 
their conditions change from time to time. If we pass 
around a room placing a thermometer on various objects, 
we find they have different temperatures. That is, a piece 
of glass will have a lower temperature than a cushion, or 
the wall a lower temperature than a curtain. Tempera- 
ture as we measure it on the thermometer is a relative 
matter, for we have in this instrument an arbitrary 
standard which is indicated by the expansion and con- 
traction of mercury in a tube. It is very convenient, and 
gives us valuable data. But on the thermometer we simply 
have a numerical expression which is arbitrary and which 
gives us a valuable figure with which to convey our ideas. 
It alone does not tell us the condition of the atmosphere. 
The thermometer and hygrometer, taken together, are very 
valuable means of acquiring knowledge regarding the air 
we breathe and in which we live. 

The temperature of the school room in winter should not 
be above 68 Fahrenheit degrees, and it should never fall 
below 60 degrees. 

SCHOOL DESKS AND SEATS 

Desks and seats should not be supplied with reference 
to age, but according to the size of the children. Only 
adjustable desks and seats should be used. 

If desks and seats are not adjusted to the size of the 
child, harm will result. The school period is the forma- 
tive period of life. The bones of children are soft; and 
they are assuming positions they will afterwards main- 
tain. Hence, they should not be permanently bent out of 



212 



LIFE WITH HEALTH 




Fig. 65. — Faulty Position — 
Desk Too High for Pupil. 

come nervous troubles, 
indigestion, headaches, 
sleeplessness, malnutri- 
tion. The lives of hun- 
dreds have been ruined by 
ill fitting desks and seats. 

If the seat is right, the 
child sits back firmly, the 
feet flat upon the floor, 
and the upper and lower 
leg form a right angle. 
The back of the seat 
should have the right 
curve to fit the back of 
the pupil, and should not 



shape, which will happen if a 
child sits day after day at a 
desk which is too high or too 
low. 

The spine may be curved by 
ill fitting seats and desks. If 
the spine is twisted or bent, 
then follows a train of ills. 
It will be remembered that the 
great spinal cord, really a part 
of the brain, passes up the 
spine. If the spine is bent, the 
cord will almost certainly be 
pinched by the slightly dis- 
placed vertebrae, and then 







Fig. 66. — Faulty Position — 
Desk Too Low for Pupil. 



HABITATION AND SCHOOL BUILDINGS 



213 



be higher than the lower border of the shoulder blades. 
If it is higher, the free movement of the arms and 
shoulders are interfered with. 

Adjustable seats and desks cost a little more than the 
stationary kind, but they are well worth the additional 
cost. School authorities should never run the risk of 
maiming children. 
Bad positions in sit- 
ting induce bad posi- 
tions in standing, and 
then follow round and 
stooped shoulders. The 
eyesight is sometimes 
affected by bad sitting 
positions, and, again, 
bad eyes sometimes 
cause children to as- 
sume wrong positions, 
although the seats are 
right. The cure for 
this is to have the eyes examined and the eye defects cor- 
rected with proper glasses. 




Fig. 



67. — Correct Position- 
Proper Height. 



-Desk of 



QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 



What is the best site for a dwelling house? 
Name the common building materials. 
What can be said of cellar and foundation? 
How much window space should each room of a house have? 
Describe a simple system of ventilation. 
Why is not heating school rooms by stoves a good thing? 
Where should heat from a furnace enter the room? Show 
why this is so. 

8. What is meant by humidity? 



1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

5. 
6. 

7. 



CHAPTEE XXI 
DUST, MICKOBES, AND INFECTION 

Dust, in greater or less quantity, is always in the air. 
The individual dust particles are small, but they vary 
greatly in size. Some are plainly discernible to the eye, 
and some are too minute to be seen as single particles. 
Dust is mostly composed of fine, dry, earthy particles, 
but frequently it is mixed with soot, powdered horse 
manure, dried spittle, minute pieces of vegetables, fiber, 
seeds, pieces of insects, powders of all description, and, 
lastly, with microbes. 

In foundries, woodworking factories, paint, cotton, to- 
bacco, and other manufactories, and in places where much 
grinding is done, the dust is a grave matter, frequently 
affecting the health of workmen most seriously. It is 
harmful to breathe dust at any time, and we should al- 
ways try to keep it down, and keep out of it all that we 
can. Floor dust in schoolrooms is very bad. The floors 
should be hard wood, closely and neatly laid, and should 
be oiled or waxed. Then they should be wiped daily. The 
law r s now generally require that proprietors of factories 
shall take every precaution to keep down dust. Dust mak- 
ing machines, such as grindstones and emery wheels, or 
band and circular saws, should have pipes with suction 
fans to carry away the dust to a dust box, or to a furnace, 

214 



DUST, MICKOBES, AND INFECTION 215 

where it is burned. In cities, fortunes are spent each 
year in cleaning and sprinkling the streets to keep down 
the dust. 

When a person is absolutely compelled to work in a 
dusty place, he can keep the dust out of the lungs by 
tying a sponge, slightly moistened, over the nose and mouth 
and breathing through it. The sponge serves to supple- 
ment the work of the hairs in the nostrils as a strainer 
of the air, and the dust particles will" be kept from enter- 
ing the lungs. This is a simple precaution and one that 
is quite effective. 

Dust should always be wiped off furniture with cloths 
slightly dampened with kerosene. Feather dusters and 
dust brushes are only a means of scattering dust, and 
should never be used. Sweeping should be so conducted 
as to make as little dust as possible. Clothes, rugs, and 
carpets should be beaten and shaken in the open air. 

Foul gases are produced by our breathing and also by 
evaporations from the skin. Sewer gas comes from sewers 
and foul effluvia, that is, bad smelling gases, proceed from 
cesspools, barnyards, barns, livery stables, and unclean 
slaughter houses. Certain factories discharge foul and 
poisonous gases into the air. 

Smoke is a visible gas containing minute particles of 
carbon in suspension. Smoke, immediately from the stove 
or chimney, cannot be breathed, for it so greatly irritates 
the nose, throat, and lungs. It causes us to cough and 
strangle and our eyes to water. A few full breaths of 
thick smoke will kill a person. We can breathe smoke if it 



216 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

is well diluted with air, and this is done by thousands in 
manufacturing cities. It is, however, injurious to health. 
Those who live in smoky air have more or less sore throat 
continually. The mucous lining exposed to the air pass- 
ages becomes dark with particles of carbon, and the eyes 
often are injured. 

The "smoke nuisance" is cried out against in all manu- 
facturing cities, and although we know how to build 
furnaces which will so thoroughly consume coal as to leave 
no smoke, they are, as yet, not much used. Smoky at- 
mosphere certainly affects the general health of those who 
live in it all the time. 

Chemical works produce gases which are unwholesome 
and dangerous to breathe. Examples of these are am- 
monia, and certain compounds of sulphur, nitric acid, and 
chlorine. The people generally have little to fear from 
these gases. It is the workmen who are immediately ex- 
posed and for whom every safeguard should be provided. 

The workers in the manufacture of phosphorus and 
mercury suffer greatly. In brass foundries fumes are given 
off which cause what is called "brass-founders' ague." 
Brass founders suffer from bloodlessness, cough, headache, 
neuralgia, disordered digestion, and eruptions on the 
skin. Lead colic affects painters and those who make 
lead salts. 

MICROBES 

The word microbe means small life. The word micro- 
organism means the same thing. These terms are applied 
to any minute plant or animal which can be seen only 
with the aid of a microscope. 



DUST, MICKOBES, AND INFECTION 217 

Bacteria are vegetable microbes, and protozoa are ani- 
mal microbes. The bacteria play an important part in 
the world, and in our lives. Microbes make our bread, 
vinegar, wine, and alcohol. They cause milk to sour, and 
create the flavor of butter and cheese. They also pre- 
pare the soil for crops. It is impossible . to raise corn, 
wheat, or vegetables unless microbes work in the soil. 
Microbes cause certain diseases as diphtheria, scarlet fever, 
measles, and consumption. There are, therefore, good and 
bad microbes. 

But the greater number of microbes are useful and 
harmless; only a few cause disease. We call those bad 
which cause us trouble or threaten our lives. A common 
term used to describe the good, or useful, microbe is be- 
nign, and for the bad, or disease-producing microbe, ma- 
lign. The protozoa are also good and bad. Minute ani- 
mals help prepare the soil to grow crops, and they cause 
diseases, also, just as do the bacteria. Malaria and yel- 
low fever, and probably smallpox, are caused by protozoa. 

Distribution. — Microbes are distributed everywhere in 
nature. They cling to the surface of any substance, and 
are found in greater or less numbers in the air, water, and 
dust. They inhabit our mouths and digestive tract; are 
found under our finger nails, in our hair and skin. But 
they are not to be feared, because comparatively few mi- 
crobes are harmful to us. 

To prove the presence of microbes in the air, slice a raw 
potato, place the slice on a piece of writing paper, cover 
with a glass tumbler, wait a few days, and watch it. Even 



218 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

when you have exposed the potato slice for -a moment only, 
bacterial colonies will appear. 

Anton van Leuwenhoek of Delft, Holland, in 1675, con- 
structed a microscope and was the first to see minute 
organisms in water, putrefying fluids, and saliva. His 
discover}^ was indeed a great one, but the world was slow 
to take up the matter, and it was almost one hundred 
years before others studied bacteria. At last we have re- 
alized that the microscopical world is as wonderful, and, 
in some ways, as important, as the visible world. 

Structure and Types of Microbes. — Under the micro- 
scope it can be seen that microbes vary in shape and 
size just as large plants and animals do. They are trans- 
lucent bodies, having only one cell, and are, for this rea- 
son, termed unicellular organisms. The large plants and 
animals we see, including ourselves, are termed multi-cellu- 
lar organisms, because they are made up of numerous 
cells. 

Unicellular organisms clo not have a natural duration 
to their life as we have. We die in time, even though we 
escape disease, simply wearing out through old age. But 
the unicellular organisms must be killed in some way, 
otherwise they live forever. We, too, may be killed by 
accident or disease, but we should in time die naturally. 
The one-celled organism does not die a natural death. It 
is probably in this fact that we find explanation of the 
perpetuation of plants and animals. 

Many are globular, or oval-shaped, and appear as dots 
either standing alone or arranged in groups or chains. 






DUST, MICKOBES, AND INFECTION 



219 



The rod-formed microbe is called a bacillus, which means 
rod. The corkscrew shapes are called spirilla. 











a. h i. 

Fig. 68. — Bacteria, 
a, b, found in pus ; c, in sputum ; d, in the stomach ; e, pneumonia ; 
F, typhoid ; g, diphtheria ; h, cholera ; i, lockjaw. 

Size of Microbes. — They are so small it is almost im- 
possible to measure them. We can say that they are never 
more than 1-50,000 of an inch long; and 400,000,000 of 
them would be required to cover a square inch. 

How They Grow. — Some bacteria grow by fission. That 
is, one bacteria splits into two, and these split again, and 



220 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

so on. First, a slight constriction appears in the middle 
of the rod, just as if a thread were tied around it, and 
shortly there are two rods, and so on. Some grow by 
spores. Spores, or spots, form in the bacteria and finally 
break away, forming a new organism. Spores grow in 
these in turn and form still others. 

Protozoa grow through a larval condition, that is, they 
pass through several stages, like a butterfly. 

THE WORK OF MICROBES 

The work done by microbes has already been stated in 
part. In addition to causing fermentation, souring, mak- 
ing the soil productive, and causing disease, they also cause 
putrefaction and decay. Putrefaction is always accom- 
panied by bad odors, and its products are poisonous. 
Putrefying meat has an offensive smell, and if a pin be 
stuck into it, and any part of our body scratched with 
the pin, swelling and pain results. This is called blood- 
poisoning, and it sometimes causes the loss of a hand, or 
arm, and even of life. The rotting of a log is a type of 
the process called decay. Decay is a kind of burning. 
Strictly speaking, burning is a chemical process where the 
carbon of wood, or other fuel, unites directly with the 
oxygen in the air. They rush together with such energy 
as to cause heat and light. Decay differs from burning 
in that microbes slowly carry oxygen molecules to the car- 
bon molecules and they unite chemically. ISTo light is given 
off, but there is just as much heat, only it is produced 
over a long period of time, and is unnoticed. 



DUST, MICKOBES, AND INFECTION 221 

MICROBE DISEASES 

It is very probable that we are continually meeting with 
disease-causing microbes, but we have a power to fight 
them off, and it is this power which saves the human 
race from being extinguished. Every person is invaded 
at times. Every cough or cold indicates the presence of 
disease microbes. Few infants escape having intestinal 
troubles, and most children have whooping cough, measles, 
and chickenpox. Grippe, or influenza, seems to visit every 
human being sooner or later. Consumption and pneu- 
monia carry off thousands, and so do diphtheria, scarlet 
fever, typhoid fever, and other microbe diseases. Soldiers 
in the army suffer greatly from microbe disease. In the 
Civil War, five times as many died from disease as were 
killed by bullets. In the Spanish War, the generals and 
military authorities did not listen to the sanitarians, and, 
in consequence, typhoid fever killed several thousand men. 
In the war between Eussia and Japan, the Eussians suf- 
fered fearfully from disease, but the Japanese did not 
suffer one-tenth as much. This was because the latter 
were careful about sanitary conditions. They were clean 
in person and in their camps. The men bathed every 
day, when possible, and went to great trouble to keep 
their clothes clean, and to destroy garbage and sewage. 
The Japanese knew how to do these things and they put 
their knowledge into actual practice. In other words, 
they were practical. The Eussians knew as much as the 
Japanese about keeping well, and holding disease at a dis- 
tance; but they were not practical, for they did not apply 
their knowledge. 



222 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

METHODS OF SPREADING INFECTION 

By the term infection is here meant the organisms which 
cause disease. The infection of diphtheria is the diph- 
theria germ, the infection of scarlet fever, or of typhoid 
fever, is the germ which causes these diseases. They come 
to us largely in the air with dust. They may be trans- 
ferred directly from one person to another. A person who 
has never had small pox, or has never been vaccinated, 
is almost certain to get small pox if he gets into a room 
where a person lies sick with the disease. He is likely to 
get it, too, if he handles the clothing from a smallpox 
case. We think that the small pox infection is usually 
breathed in, but we know positively that it may be scratched 
into us by taking a needle and dipping the point in small- 
pox matter, and then piercing the skin with it. This is 
called inoculation. We can eat or drink infection which 
has fallen in dust from the air upon our food or into our 
milk or water. This is the usual way by which we acquire , 
typhoid fever and dysentery. 

Infection is carried by insects. Malaria, chills and 
fever, are brought to us by mosquitoes, and so is yellow 
fever. Flies frequently bring disease germs on their feet 
from nasty places, and, when walking over our food, leave 
them for us to eat. Fleas and bed bugs may come into 
contact with infection and bite it into us. Eats and mice 
may carry infectious diseases. If a cat has played with a 
child who has scarlet fever, that cat may carry the microbes 
to other children. In fact this has been known to happen. 

IMMUNITY AND RESISTANCE 

Some diseases, such as whooping cough, measles, chicken- 






DUST, MICROBES, AND INFECTION 223 

pox, scarlet fever, smallpox, and others, are not likely to 
attack a person a second time. Any one who has had these 
diseases is said to be immune. If a person is vaccinated, 
that is, has cow pox deliberately imparted to him, he is 
made practically immune to smallpox. We can also 
make a child immune from diphtheria for a few weeks by 
injecting a little diphtheria antitoxin into his circulation. 
Antitoxin is a substance found in the serum of horses after 
they have been given diphtheria many times and recov- 
ered. If a guinea pig is injected with diphtheria poison, 
it is certain to die, but if at the same time antitoxin is 
injected, it will not even be made sick. 

Natural Immunity. — Some animals are naturally im- 
mune to certain infectious diseases. A chicken, even a 
little chick, is immune from the disease known as anthrax, 
which kills cows, sheep, and even men. Hogs, dogs and 
most lower animals are immune from typhoid fever. 
Measles is seldom a fatal disease among white people, but 
when it was introduced to the Indians living along the 
Amazon, in 1749, it almost extinguished them. It seems, 
therefore, that white people have some resistance, or im- 
munity, against measles. 

Resistance is a vague term, but we mean by it that some 
persons, even if exposed to infection, do not develop dis- 
ease. It is certain that a vigorous, healthy person, one 
who has good digestion and nourishes well, cannot have 
consumption. His health and strength give him resistance, 
and, no matter how many consumption microbes he takes 
in, he goes free. When soldiers enlist in the army sur- 



224 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

geons examine them to see if they are healthy, strong and 
well; for, if they are not, they are more subject to dis- 
ease. Strong, healthy men resist disease. 

CONTAGION 

Contagion is a word that means almost the same as in- 
fection. In talking they are used indiscriminately, but 
there is some difference. A contagious disease is one got- 
ten by contact with a person who is sick — that is, the infec- 
tion is directly transferred. An infectious disease is ac- 
quired by breathing the germs from the air, drinking 
them in water or milk, or eating them in food. The 
word transmissible is a good term and much used, for it 
covers both of the others. 

Mild attacks of all diseases are frequent, and this must 
be remembered. We may have diphtheria in so mild a 
form that it passes as a cold, or it may be so severe as to 
cause severe illness and death. This is true also of scarlet 
fever and typhoid fever. Even small pox may be so mild 
that no eruption appears, and a person never knows that 
he has had the disease. Children have gone through 
scarlet fever and scarcely shown they were ill; their slight 
sickness being regarded as a cold or slight stomach trouble. 

In studying what follows, do not forget that every case 
of transmissible disease has come from another case, and 
remember, too, that only a few diseases are caught from 
animals. It is sick people who transmit disease, and es- 
pecially those who are mildly sick. All the excretions of 
the sick must be disinfected or destroyed. Coughing is a 
fertile method of transmitting disease. When we cough 
we spray small particles of saliva into the air, and they 



DUST, MICROBES, AND INFECTION 005 

contain the disease-causing germs. Others breathe the 
germs, as well as the fine spray, and unless health and 
vigor give them resistance they are endangered. Grippe or 
influenza, is transmitted in this way, also consumption and 
pneumonia. When we cough we should cover the mouth 
with a handkerchief, or better, if we have a cold or other 
disease of the air passages, we should carry special hand- 
kerchiefs and use them to catch the mouth spray. 

We should never spit on the floor, nor on the sidewalk. 
If disease compels us to spit we should at least be as 
decent about it as possible. Spitting is largely a matter 
of unclean habit. Eefined women do not spit, and this 
proves conclusively that it is an unnecessary habit. They 
may spray disease germs into the air when they cough, 
but even that may be avoided. As men do all the spitting. 
they are more largely responsible for the spread of dis- 
eases in that way. In accordance with these facts many 
cities have passed laws fining men who spit on floors and 
sidewalks. 

QUESTIONS FOB EEVIEW 

1. Why should dust be avoided? 

2. What occupations are sometimes injurious on account of 
dust ! 

3. What precautions should be taken against inhaling dust? 

4. What can be said in this connection of foul gases and 
smoke ? 

5. What are microbes? 

6. What can be said of their size and number? 

7. What is infection? 

8. How is infection spread? 

9. Discuss immunity and resistance. 



CHAP TEE XXII 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES 

Only four school diseases will be considered. They are 
measles, diphtheria, scarlet fever, and consumption or 
tuberculosis. 

MEASLES 

Measles come to the school and home at all seasons, but 
generally in the cold months, when people crowd together 
and breathe bad air in badly ventilated rooms. Measles 
stand next to scarlet fever as a cause of death among 
children. Pneumonia often follows measles, and con- 
sumption often follows pneumonia. Sometimes a person 
has measles twice, but usually one attack gives immun- 
ity. 

After measles, it is not uncommon to have abscesses 
in the ear, also sore eyes, making them weak and some- 
times causing blindness. Catarrh often follows measles, 
not only appearing in the head but in the intestines, caus- 
ing feeble digestion, which troubles the person ever after- 
ward. All of these facts prove measles to be a dangerous 
disease and one that should not be treated lightly. It is 
not necessary for every one to have measles. At one time 
it was thought every one. must have such diseases as 
measles and scarlet fever, but this idea is abandoned now. 

226 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 227 

The microbe of measles is unknown, but we do know 
something of the method of infection. One case of 
measles always develops from another case. It is believed 
that the infection is transmitted by coughing, thus spray- 
ing it into the air and causing others to acquire the dis- 
ease. The spray may fall upon bedclothes, or personal 
clothing, and, becoming dry, the fine dust may fly in the 
air and be breathed. The nose secretions and expectora- 
tions of a measles patient should be collected carefully 
and burned. 

DIPHTHERIA 

Diphtheria is caused by a microbe which is well known. 
It likes to live and grow in the throats of young children. 
Whenever diphtheria, in severe form, appears among school 
children, it is certain the disease has existed for sometime 
in a mild form, and has not been discovered. To discover 
mild diphtheria it is necessary for the doctor to examine 
under a microscope the mucous found in the throat. 

Diphtheria may be so mild as to pass as a "simple cold." 
We know this to be true because examinations of chil- 
dren's throats have again and again discovered the germs 
to be present when the diagnosis was "a little cold," or "a 
mild tonsilitis." 

Many times diphtheria germs have been found in the 
throats and noses of children when no complaint was 
made, when there was no fever, and when no sign of illness 
could be discovered. Why all the symptoms of diphtheria 
do not appear under such circumstances may be due to the 
child's resistance (good health), or because the germs 
themselves are weak. It is found that these germs, when 



228 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

cultivated, produce a poison which will kill guineapigs 
or rabbits. It is further found that, if "weak germs" are 
transferred from one child to another, they frequently 
grow strong and produce unmistakable diphtheria. Be- 
fore this discovery was made, the doctors thought it was 
necessary for spots, or a membrane, to appear on the ton- 
sils and the walls of the throat before the case could be 
diphtheria. No up-to-date physician thinks so now. Very 
frequently the mistake is made of calling a case tonsilitis 
when it is diphtheria. The fact is, hundreds of cases of 
diphtheria are called sore throat, tonsilitis, or something 
else, and all such errors may, and frequently do, spread 
diphtheria. This is how it happens that people frequently 
say, "I can't see where my child caught diphtheria, for 
there have not been any cases around here/' while many 
undiscovered cases were on the streets or in school all the 
time. 

Antitoxin. — A little has already been said about anti- 
toxin. It is the best remedy for, as well as the best pre- 
ventive of, diphtheria. 

MANAGEMENT OF DIPHTHERIA 

It is very difficult to determine in the beginning whether 
or not the sickness is diphtheria. It is wise, if diphtheria 
exists in the neighborhood, to be on the safe side and take 
it for granted that when any one has sore throat, foul 
breath and fever, it is diphtheria. Separate such person 
from all others except the necessary nurses, and call a 
physician. 

If possible, persons sick with diphtheria should be 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 229 

placed in a large, light, airy room. Remove carpets, cur- 
tains, table covers, plush chairs and all articles which sire 
not needed. Heat with an open fire, if it is possible, and 
give the patient an abundance of fresh air, night and day. 
No one should enter but the nurses and the doctor. 

Clean cloths should be used to absorb the discharge from 
the mouth and nose of the patient, and should be imme- 
diately burned after use. 

All plates, knives, forks, spoons and glasses used by the 
patient must be boiled at once in water. 

All clothing, sheets, pillowcases, towels, blankets and 
other cloth articles, should, before they are taken from 
the room, be put into a pail or tub half filled with a solu- 
tion of chlorinated lime. Then they must be taken out 
very soon and boiled for at least twenty minutes. 

If the house is small and the patient can not be isolated, 
then no member of the family should leave the yard. In 
tenement houses or in houses sheltering more than one 
family, the health officers will give special orders. Sup- 
plies can be brought to the gate or door, and in instances 
where poverty demands, the township trustee will furnish 
food. 

A person who has had diphtheria may spread the disease 
for six to eight weeks from the beginning of the attack. 
Danger of spreading exists so long as diphtheria germs 
remain in the throat. The physician should make culture 
tests to determine this point, and no person, after recovery 
from an attack of diphtheria, should associate with others, 
nor go to church or school, nor appear on the streets until 
the throat no longer shows disease germs upon culture. 



230 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

When cultures can not be made the physician will have 
to use his best judgment in deciding whether or not the 
patient may safely go out. 

Diphtheria germs have been frequently found in the 
throats of persons who were quite well and who were not 
afterward brought down with the disease. Some people 
seem not to be susceptible to diphtheria, and the germs, 
although present, do not grow and cause the disease. A 
high authority tells of a nurse who carried diphtheria 
germs in her throat for a long time and introduced the 
disease into five families. This fact explains, in a degree, 
how it is possible for diphtheria to appear when there 
seems to have been no exposure, and it also teaches us to 
be very sure that recently recovered patients are free from 
diphtheria germs before they are allowed again to go out. 

All the clothing of the sick person should be disinfected 
before it is worn again, not neglecting what the patient 
had on when taken sick. 

SCARLET FEVER 

Scarlet fever, or scarlatina, is a very dangerous con- 
tagious disease. It usually attacks children under ten 
years of age, but adults sometimes have it. 

It is caused by a special contagion or poison which may 
be conveyed from the body of a person afflicted with the 
disease, by personal contact, by infected clothing, rags, 
hair, paper, dishes, or any article, or by the discharges. 
The disease may be communicated from a person recover- 
ing therefrom so long as the usual subsequent scaling or 
peeling of the skin continues, which sometimes is not 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 231 

completed before the lapse of seventy or eighty days. The 
poison may remain in clothing for years, especially if 
packed away in drawers, boxes or trunks. 

Mild cases are as much to be feared as severe attacks, so 
far as communication to others is concerned, for the dis- 
ease may as easily be taken from a mild as from a severe 
case. 

The discharges from the throat, nose and mouth are 
extremely dangerous, and those from the skin, eyes, ears, 
kidneys and bowels are also dangerous, and remain so for 
a considerable time. 

Filth, uncleanliness and imperfect ventilation increase 
the danger of spreading the disease and make recovery 
more difficult. 

After exposure to the contagion of scarlet fever, a sus- 
ceptible person will develop the disease in from one to 
fourteen days. 

During the existence of scarlet fever in a community, 
all cases of sore throat, with fever, are to be looked upon 
with suspicion until their innocent character is established. 

If a child who has not previously had an attack of 
scarlet fever, should unfortunately be exposed to a case, 
it should be carefully watched during the following two 
weeks. Upon the first symptoms of shivering, lassitude, 
headache, frequent pulse, hot, dry skin, flushed face, 
furred tongue, with much thirst and loss of appetite, the 
child should immediately be separated as completely as 
possible from other members of the household and all 
other persons, until a physician has seen it and deter- 
mined whether it has scarlet fever. All persons known to 
be sick with this disease (even those but mildly sick) 



232 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

should be promptly and thoroughly isolated from the pub- 
lic. This is of quite as much importance as in a case of 
smallpox. 

In general, the management of a case of scarlet fever 
should be the same as that of a case of diphtheria. 

CONSUMPTION 

Consumption is always caused by a minute organism 
or microbe. Without the presence of the germ there is no 
consumption. The disease is never inherited, and the old 
idea that it is, must be dropped, for it is certainly false. 
It is true, consumption is a family disease. Whole fami- 
lies fall victims to it. Father, son, and grandson get it. 
But still we say, it is not inherited. Accurate, careful 
study of thousands of cases by scientific men over periods 
of many years discloses that what seems to be heredity is 
always infection. A child may inherit weak lungs just 
as it may inherit weak eyes, and the lungs being weak, the 
consumption germ gets hold. Even though the lungs be 
weak, still the germ cannot get hold, if the person by right 
living, keeps up his vitality, which means — maintains his 
resistance. It is unlikely that anyone escapes taking the 
germs of consumption into his body. They are carried 
into us by the air we breathe, and by certain foods we 
may eat. Why, then, does not everyone have consump- 
tion ? This would be the case if there were not residing in 
the healthy body a resisting force. 

HOW WE GET CONSUMPTION 

The germs of consumption may enter our bodies in 
three ways : by the lungs, by the stomach, and by the 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 233 

skin. The invasion is believed to be most frequently by 
the lungs, yet some recent experiments on animals indi- 
cate that the stomach, or better, the intestinal tract, is the 
most frequent port of entry. In order to enter by the 
skin, there must be cuts or abrasions. Consumption of 
the lungs is the most frequent form, and then comes con- 
sumption of the bowels. Every organ and tissue of the 
body is attacked by consumption, In order to get to the 
brain and the bones, the germs must be carried by the 
blood current, or, they might traverse the soft tissues. 
Certainly they find their way somehow, and produce the 
disease in all tissues. It is plain, then, that consumption 
germs can get into us with ease, and it is also plain that 
they fail to grow and produce disease in a large propor- 
tion of instances. Still they succeed so frequently as to 
cause one in every seven deaths, and so make consumption 
the most to be feared of all diseases. 

LOWERED RESISTANCE 

As already said, if it were not for the resistance which 
the consumption germs meet in the body we would all 
have consumption. The word resistance is a term which 
covers our ignorance. We do not know fully what it is, 
nor how it acts, but we do know pretty well how we can 
acquire it and how it may be lost. By far the most fre- 
quent way by which resistance is lowered is by breathing 
foul air. Foul air occurs in schoolrooms, in tightly closed 
bedrooms, living rooms, offices, court rooms ; always indeed 
in houses. Eesistance may also be lowered by lack of good 
food, slow starvation, anxiety, sorrow, intemperance, and 



234 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

by typhoid fever and other diseases. But, as said, the 
breathing of impure air is the most frequent method. 

Xot a little consumption is induced in our schoolhouses. 
We send our children to schoolrooms which are not sup- 
plied with enough pure air. Day after day they breathe 
poison, gradually lowering their resistance, and then fol- 
low coughs, colds, catarrh, headache, languor, loss of appe- 
tite, nervous breakdowns, and consumption. The con- 
sumption may not appear sometimes until five or ten 
years after school days are over, but the lungs are made 
weak while in school, and although nature tries hard to 
put off the disease, the person at last succumbs. 

A sure way to acquire consumption is to shut the air 
out of your houses, especially out of your bedrooms. The 
sure way to avoid it is to open the windows wide and let 
in God's pure air. We should not be afraid of night air. 
It is purer, sweeter and more healthful than day air. It 
is chill which makes people take cold in the dark hours, 
not a mysterious something in the air. We should protect 
ourselves against sudden chill and the night will not cause 
us to catch cold, but on the contrary, will give us health. 

CONSUMPTION IS A HOUSE DISEASE 

Only those who live in houses have this disease. Hunt- 
ers and trappers, and others who live outdoors are free 
from it. They have an abundance of air, and rarely meet 
consumption germs. The germ of consumption is a plant, 
not an animal, and it is in every sense a house plant. In 
the house there exists the most favorable conditions for 
protecting, transplanting, and growing this plant. Houses 



INFECTIOUS DISEASES 235 

which are occupied by consumptives not only are breeding 
grounds for consumption during the lifetime of the person 
afflicted, but for a long time after his death, unless thor- 
oughly disinfected. To neglect to disinfect a house which 
has contained consumption is to invite the disease to attack 
the succeeding occupants. In the act of coughing, con- 
sumptives spray spittle into the air, and this spittle con- 
tains germs. By coughing and spitting the germs get 
upon the walls, furniture, carpets, hangings, and bed- 
clothes, in the form of dust. They retain life for a long 
time on account of the absence of sunlight, and the stagna- 
tion of the air. 

HOW TO PREVENT CONSUMPTION 

Having learned that we must lower our resistance be- 
fore the consumptive germs can grow in us, and knowing 
that destroyed germs cannot cause consumption, we have 
plainly before us the means of preventing the disease. 

The first step is to teach and compel all consumptives 
to place paper napkins before their faces when they cough, 
to catch the spray and sputum. The napkins may be 
immediately burned or put into a paper bag, and the bag 
burned when convenient. The prevention of the spread 
of the seeds of consumption everywhere is simply a matter 
of decency, and may be accomplished. 

The disease may be cured by the patient's simply stay- 
ing in the open air, night and day. Sunlight and fresh 
air, together with plenty of pure, wholesome food is the 
only known cure for consumption. 



CHAPTEE XXIII 

MANAGEMENT OF THE SICK BOOM 

The speedy recovery of the sick depends to a large 
extent upon the care and good judgment exercised in the 
management of the sick room. The simple directions 
which follow ought to be observed by those who have 
charge of the sick. 

1. Eemove all carpets, drapery, clothing, and furniture 
not needed. 

2. Ventilate well. Keep windows open all of the time. 
If you do not ventilate the sick room thoroughly, recov- 
ery is greatly delayed, for bad air of itself makes well per- 
sons sick, and good air is better than any medicine. 

3. The room, nurse, and patient should be kept perfect- 
ly clean. Cleanliness greatly aids recovery. 

4. Admit no visitors without permission of the phy- 
sician. Visits should be brief, quiet, and cheerful. 

5. Keep out flies, mosquitoes, and other insects, by 
screens and all practicable methods. Insects worry the 
patient, thus preventing recovery, and they very frequently 
carry disease in their bite. 

6. Never allow a bad odor to remain in the room. If 
free ventilation, sunshine and cleanliness do not keep out 
bad odors, then sprinkle dilute formaldehyde (1 part 

236 



MANAGEMENT OF THE SICK EOOM 237 

formaldehyde to 50 of water) onto the carpet, or spray it 
into the air with an atomizer. 

7. All body or bed clothing, towels, napkins, cloths, 
bandages, sponges, and all dishes which have been in the 
sick room, should be disinfected before being taken from 
the room. 

8. Discharges from the patient, whether from the 
mouth, bowels or bladder, should always be received in a 
vessel containing a disinfectant, and allowed to remain 
in contact with the disinfectant at least one-half hour 
before being buried. 

9. Consider that everything that has been brought into 
the sick room has become infected, and carefully disinfect 
before removing it. Never leave a sick room, or take 
food, without first washing hands with carbolic or other 
antiseptic soap. 

DISINFECTION 

Whenever a room has been occupied by a person sick 
with consumption, diphtheria, scarlet fever, typhoid fever, 
smallpox, measles, or whooping cough, it should be care- 
fully disinfected. All clothing and articles which have 
been in contact with the patient should also be disinfected. 
Old mattresses, old carpets, and like articles, should be 
burned. If this were always done there would be much 
less sickness, because the germs of the disease would be 
killed. 

HOW TO DISINFECT 

Washable Articles. — Into a tub, or other receptacle of 
appropriate size, put enough water to cover the handker- 



238 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

chiefs, towels, napkins, sheets, blankets or other washable 
articles, and to each gallon of water add one fluid ounce 
(two tablespoonfuls) of 40 per cent formaldehyde solu- 
tion. Stir the water and formaldehyde together and then 
put in the articles. Let soak for not less than one-half 
hour, then laundry as usual. 

Unwashable Articles. — Quilts, comforts, pillows, mat- 
tresses, carpets, clothing, etc., may be disinfected by plac- 
ing them in a tight room, or in a room that is itself to be 
disinfected, and then burning sulphur therein or filling 
the room with formaldehyde gas. 

HOW TO DISINFECT A ROOM 

Preparation of Room. — Carefully close all windows and 
doors, except one door for exit. Paste paper over stove- 
pipe holes, and paste paper strips over all windows, tran- 
som or door cracks. In a word, seal the room tightly from 
the inside. 

Open closet doors, drawers, trunks, boxes, etc. Sus- 
pend clothing and bed clothes upon lines stretched across 
the room, or spread out on a chair or clotheshorse. Books 
must be opened and the leaves spread. In short, the room 
and its contents must be so disposed as to secure free access 
of gas to all parts and all objects. 

The next step is to make the air in the room damp. 
This is absolutely necessary for disinfection, either by 
sulphur or by formaldehyde. Dampness may be pro- 
duced (a) by boiling water on a gas or gasoline stove; (b) 
by pouring boiling hot water from a tea kettle into a 
tub; (c) by pouring hot water onto hot bricks or stone, or 






MANAGEMENT OF THE SICK BOOM 239 

by dropping hot bricks or stones into vessels containing 
water. Under no circumstances is efficient disinfection 
possible without, in some way, making the air of the room 
quite damp. 

Measure the room and multiply the length, breadth 
and height in feet together and divide by 1,000. This 
gives the number of thousand cubic feet in the room. 

Disinfection by Sulphur. — Place in the room a tub con- 
taining about two inches of water. Put two bricks in the 
tub and on them place an iron or tin pan or a stone crock, 
and in the pan or crock place three pounds of sulphur for 
every 1,000 cubic feet. Now fill the room with steam. 
When the room is full of steam, pour a spoonful of alco- 
hol or coal oil onto the sulphur and set on fire. Immedi- 
ately leave the room and close the door. The sulphur is 
burned to a gas, and this gas, in the presence of the steam, 
kills all infection. Sulphur gas without steam is worth- 
less. Do not, on any account, leave out the steam. 

Disinfection by Formaldehyde. — Measure the room, and 
for each 1,000 cubic feet use two pints of formaldehyde 
and thirteen ounces of commercial permanganate of potas- 
sium. Place a large washbowl, crock, tin dishpan or gal- 
vanized iron pan or tub in the center of the room. Put in 
the required amount of permanganate of potassium and, 
lastly, pour in the required amount of formaldehyde. Per- 
manganate must go in first. Retire immediately after 
pouring on the formaldehyde, for the formaldehyde gas is 
promptly released and is injurious if breathed in any quan- 
tity. Keep the room closed for at least three hours, then 
open, air thoroughly, and clean in the usual way. 



240 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

Disinfection of Clothing, or of a Few Articles. — -Take 
an empty trunk, wooden box or wash boiler. On the bottom 
lay any article, say a coat, cover with an old towel or a 
piece of wash goods, and sprinkle thereon two tablespoon- 
fuls o'f 40 per cent formaldehyde solution. Then put in 
another article, cover as before, and again sprinkle two 
tablespoonfuls of formaldehyde. If there are enough arti- 
cles, the boiler or trunk may be filled in this way. Finally, 
put on the cover to the boiler, or close the trunk, and in ten 
hours open and hang out in the air and sunshine. If the 
smell of formaldehyde persists, a little aqua ammonia 
sprinkled on the clothes will remove it. 

A Standard Disinfectant. — Dissolve chloride of lime of 
the best quality in pure water in the proportion of six 
ounces to the gallon. Keep in a stone jar or jug. Use 
one quart of this solution for each discharge from a patient 
suffering with any contagious or infectious disease. Mix 
well and leave the vessel for an hour or more before empty- 
ing. Treat vomited matter in the same way. For a very 
copious discharge, especially in typhoid fever, use a larger 
quantity; and for solid or semi-solid matter, use the solu- 
tion in double strength. Discharge from the mouth and 
throat should be received into a cup half full of the solu- 
tion, and those from the nostrils upon soft cotton or linen 
cloths, which should be immediately burned. 

QUESTIONS FOE BEVIEW 

1. What can be said regarding air in the sick room? 

2. What should be done with the furniture and draperies? 

3. What are some of the duties of a nurse? 

4. What is disinfection? 

5. When should a room be disinfected? 

6. Describe the process of disinfecting a room. 



CHAPTER XXI 

EMERGENCIES 

One can often be very useful who knows what to do for 
the injured, or for those who may become suddenly ill. 
In many such instances life may be saved, or still greater 
injury prevented, by prompt and intelligent action, with- 
out the attendance of a physician, or before a physician 
can be called. In cases of severe accidents, or severe ill- 
ness, a physician should be called. 

WOUNDS 

Surgeons classify cuts, or incisions, of greater or less 
depth, as incised wounds. Punctured wounds are made by 
thorns, splinters, nails, rods, and the like. Poisoned 
wounds are caused by bites of snakes, dogs, rats, spiders. 
Contused wounds are made by crushing injuries, and are 
more or less bruises, while lacerative wounds are produced 
by tearing or mangling. 

BLEEDING 

We need not be alarmed at bleeding unless the blood 
comes by throbs or spurts, in which case it is from an 
artery, and must be speedily stopped. But a small amount 
of blood will stain much clothing and make a showing 
beyond its importance. 

241 



242 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

What to Do. — Frequently, also, very free bleeding may 
be stopped by the simple pressure of the finger on the 
vein. But in any case, we should keep cool. One cannot 
think or act with judgment if agitated or alarmed. It 
should first be observed whether the bleeding is arterial 
or from veins, and note should be taken of the location, 
size and kind of wound. 

Pressure is of great importance to stop bleeding. It is 
futile to try to stop the bleeding of an artery of any size 
with drugs like alum and tannin. Pressure is the force 
to apply. A place as near to the wound as possible should 
be selected. If the bleeding is from a leg or arm, elevate 
it, tie a knot in a handkerchief or suspender or cloth, place 
the knot over the main artery, and twist it with a stick 
until the artery is closed. Do not attempt to remove dirt 
from a wound until the bleeding is stopped. Pick out any 
gravel or other foreign matter and then wash the wound 
and adjoining parts. If possible put a little carbolic acid 
in the wash water, one teaspoonful to the pint, or add two 
or three teaspoonfuls of salt. 

In lacerated wounds the torn parts must be replaced 
as nearly as possible before the edges are brought together. 
Cold or hot cloths, wet in water containing antiseptic, 
should be applied. Then the parts should be fastened 
firmly. 

Punctured wounds are usually more dangerous than in- 
cised wounds. Splinters and rusty nails frequently carry 
infection into a wound. Especially is this true if the 
nail or splinter is in a stable. This is because tetanus 



EMERGENCIES 243 

(lockjaw) germs are found in stables. Sometimes erysip- 
elas and poisoning attend punctured wounds; hence it is 
important that old planks and boards with nails sticking 
up from them should be not allowed to lie around door- 
yards or barnyards. 

If the cause of the injury is still in the wound, remove 
it. Splinters, pins, needles, or nails, must be pulled out 
of the wound. Do not think that they will work their 
way out. If the wound is from a rusty nail, or toy pistol, 
lay it open with a sharp knife, let it bleed freely, and then 
pour in strong solution of carbolic acid or peroxide of 
hydrogen, and lastly bandage it with antiseptic bandages. 
It w r ill not do to trifle with wounds of this kind. It is far 
better to lay open a wound with a knife and cauterize it 
than to run the great risk of lockjaw. 

If a splinter is forced under a finger or toe nail, and 
cannot be pulled out, scrape the nail thin immediately over 
the splinter until it can be removed. Sometimes a splinter 
or needle is so firmly embedded that it becomes necessary 
to remove it by making an incision. Fishhooks make ugly 
wounds and are hard to remove. It is better to push the 
barb on through the tissues, and cut off the barb with a 
nippers, than to try to draw it back and out. If pushing 
through is not the best, then cut down upon it to effect 
removal. Always dress wounds with antiseptic dressings. 

Infected Wounds. — If pus appears in a wound it is in- 
fected. This is poisoning, and should be attended to by a 
surgeon. 

Choking. — In case of choking, a sharp blow upon the 



244 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

back, if applied soon after the foreign body lodges in the 
throat, will frequently aid in its expulsion. 

Sometimes little children and hysterical persons intro- 
duce peas, beans, pins and other small bodies into the 
ears or nose. Insects also sometimes find entrance to these 
cavities. Syringing with warm water is to be used, unless 
the body can be seen and easily removed with pincers or 
the round end of a hair pin. Sweet oil may be poured into 
the ear, the person lying down with the affected ear up- 
ward, and afterward the ear syringed with warm water 
and castile soap. 

Foreign bodies in the nose may usually be expelled by 
filling the lungs with air and suddenly expelling it through 
the nostril that is obstructed, holding the finger over the 
other nostril. Sometimes giving snuff to cause sneezing 
will be effective. 

Specks in the Eye. — Do not rub the eye. Lift up the 
lid by the lashes, holding it up and letting the tears wash 
off the eyeball. If the speck is embedded in the lid, turn 
it back and wipe it off with a point made by twisting the 
corner of a handkerchief, or twist a few fibers of cotton 
on the end of a match and use it to remove the speck. 
The same procedure will also serve to free the eyeball 
from specks. Never buy advertised eyewashes or eye- 
salves, and never, without medical advice, use anything in 
the eye except warm soft water containing a little common 
salt. 

Sprains and strains are essentially the same. The first 
term is used when ligaments, cartilages, muscles or nerves 
about the joint are bruised or torn. The second is some- 



EMERGENCIES 245 

times used as meaning merely the result of stretching the 
muscles. Eest is nursing for sprains and strains. Bath- 
ing in cold, or perhaps better, in hot water, and applying 
cold or hot water by bandages gives relief and aids recov- 
ery. 

Bruises are produced by blows, by pressure, or by falls. 
Black and blue spots are caused by blood oozing from 
broken vessels underneath the skin. Apply cloths wrung 
out in hot water. 

Frost Bites. — A really frozen member or place on the 
body is destroyed the same as if burned, but a frost bite 
is like a slight burn, only injuring, not destroying, the 
tissues. The part affected by frost becomes bluish or 
white. Gently rub the part with snow, ice, or cold water. 
Bring the person to a warm room and gradually induce 
reaction. Stimulants will sometimes be found useful. 

Fainting is caused by a weak heart. The sight of blood, 
or bad news suddenly imparted, may cause one to faint. 
Medicines like phenacetin and acetanilid, and other coal- 
tar derivations, depress the heart and sometimes cause 
fainting. 

Lay the person down flat on the floor or upon a bed. 
But do not carry the fainting person any great distance to 
a bed. Do not place a pillow under the head or in any 
way raise it. Bather raise the rest of the body higher 
than the head. Dash cold water in the face and hold a 
handkerchief or towel to the nose of the patient, pouring 
on a few drops of ammonia. Smelling salts are also 
good. The fainting person may recover quickly, but if he 
does not, proceed as directed above, and if the hands and 



246 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

feet become cold, chafe them. Cover the patient in warm 
blankets and put a hot water bottle, or hot sadiron, or 
hot brick, to the feet. 

Fits or Convulsions. — Epilepsy is an affection of the 
nervous system characterized by attacks of unconsciousness, 
with or without convulsions. In children convulsions may 
be caused by undigested food or by congestion of the 
brain. 

Do not try to hold or restrain the patient. Simply try 
to prevent him from being harmed. If the tongue is bit- 
ten or in danger of being bitten, place a cork or piece of 
wood between the teeth. Cover the patient with a blanket 
when the convulsions cease and let him rest. If it is an 
epileptic attack, do not dash water onto the patient, nor 
indeed do anything more than to prevent self injury. 

Sunstroke and Heat Exhaustion. — Sunstroke occurs 
chiefly in persons who are working hard in the sun. It 
happens, too, almost always when the stomach is full. Heat 
exhaustion may occur out of the sun, but after exposure 
for a long time to high temperature combined with phy- 
sical exertion. The skin is usually cool, the pulse small 
and rapid, and the temperature below normal. 

In sunstroke the person is hot and must be placed in 
the shade in a cool place. Eub the body with ice and apply 
ice to the head. ' If ice is not at hand, use cold water. In 
heat exhaustion the pulse is weak and skin cool. Use 
stimulants. 

Burns and Scalds. — Severe burns and scalds may be at- 
tended with serious shock, or cause inflammation of in- 
ternal organs. If near the region of the vital organs, or 



EMERGENCIES 247 

if the area injured is considerable, then not only intense 
suffering will result but sometimes even death. 

If a person's clothing is on fire, seize the nearest coat, 
rug, table-cover, blanket, comfort, or like article, and, 
holding it before you to protect yourself, wrap it around 
the burning area. Keep the flames as much as possible 
from the face and prevent, all you can, the entrance of hot 
air into the lungs. Water, of course, may be used, and if 
no coats or blankets are near, roll the patient over and over, 
bringing the burning spots between the patient and the 
floor or ground. 

When the fire is out, remove all clothing near the in- 
jured part by cutting with knife or shears, being careful, 
not to tear open blisters. Any pieces of cloth that adhere 
to the skin should be treated with water to soften them. 
Wet the injured area well and freely, and apply ordinary 
baking soda. Afterward mix soda, glycerine and water to- 
gether to form a cream, adding a little carbolic acid. 
When ready wash away the first application and spread on 
the soda cream. This may be removed and re-applied from 
time to time. Lard, oil, or tallow, may be applied, or a 
mixture of one teaspoonful of carbolic acid and one table- 
spoonful of glycerine in one pint of olive oil, will be 
found excellent. Shake this mixture thoroughly when ap- 
plying it. Cream, dampened starch, flour, or vaseline, are 
useful until better means can be supplied. Cover the 
treated surface with soft linen or cotton cloth. It is an 
easy matter to puncture blisters with a needle and draw 
out the watery contents. 

Burns made by acids should be treated as ordinary burns 



248 LIFE WITH HEALTH 

after washing away the acid. Alcohol and glycerine added 
to the wash water will materially help to remove acids. 

POISONING 

If, after a person has taken food or drink, he is taken 
suddenly HI, has pain and repeated retching and vomit- 
ing, we usually suspect poisoning. If the poison is arsenic, 
pain, vomiting and purging will result ; if strychnine 
there will be spasms with more or less unconsciousness. 
Opium and morphine produce deep sleep, commencing 
with dullness and drowsiness. If the poison is carbolic 
acid, it may be detected by odor; if a strong mineral acid, 
like sulphuric, muriatic, or nitric acid, the burned ap- 
pearance of the mouth and lips will be indications. 

What to Do. — If the poison is an acid, use baking soda 
and large quantities of water to neutralize it, and then 
cause vomiting. Vomiting must be caused in all forms 
of poisoning. A handy emetic is a glass of warm, not hot, 
water with a teaspoonful of salt and the same amount of 
mustard mixed with it. If this does not act promptly, 
tickle the throat with a feather or the finger. If the per- 
son is unconscious or will not swallow readily, pinch the 
mouth and pry the mouth open with a stick or clothes- 
pin, and depress the tongue with a spoon or stick. By 
pressing on the jaws at their joints the mouth will be 
forced open. 

Antidotes are substances which directly neutralize or 
combat poisons; such are lemon juice, weak vinegar and 
bicarbonate of soda, for acids. Common salt and the white 
of an egg are antidotes for corrosive sublimate and nitrate 



EMEKGENCIES 249 

of silver. Tincture of iron with ammonia added, until 
the odor of ammonia can be detected and the iron is pre- 
cipitated, is an antidote for arsenic. Strong coffee is op- 
posed to opium or morphine, and olive oil, milk, cream, 
butter, castor oil, flaxseed tea, white of an egg are good 
mechanical antidotes in that they coat the stomach tempo- 
rarily and thus protect it. 

IN CASE OF DROWNING 

The first thing to do is to remove any water from the 
air passages. To do this loosen the clothing of the pa- 
tient and lay him face downward. Clear the mouth of any 
mucous by wiping it out. Draw the tongue forward 
by grasping it with the fingers wrapped with a handker- 
chief, and proceed as follows: With the patient lying 
on his face, stand astride his hips with your face toward 
his head, and raise him suddenly two or three times, the 
hands being clasped below the stomach. 

Instead of proceeding as above, a roll of clothing may 
be placed beneath the stomach. Pressure should then be 
exerted on the back over the stomach. Do not roll the 
patient on a barrel or hold him up by the heels. Water 
rarely enters the lungs, but is usually in the air passages. 

Artificial Respiration. — The water having been gotten 
rid of, if respiration has not yet started, then, without 
delay, commence artificial respiration. It may be neces- 
sary to continue this for an hour or two, and all the time 
try to restore heat by rubbing and chafing, and by the 
application of hot blankets. Do not for an instant stop the 
artificial filling and emptying of the lungs. 



250 LIF\E WITH HEALTH 

A good method to produce artificial respiration is known 
as the Michigan State Board of Health Method. After 
getting rid of the water in the air passages place the pa- 
tient face downward, keeping the position astride the body. 
First, take firm hold of the clothing over the shoulders, 
or, if the body is naked, under the armpits, with the 
thumbs over the points of the shoulders. Eaise the 
chest until the forehead just touches the ground and 
count slowly one, two, three. Second, lower the body 
to the ground, placing the bent arm of the patient 
beneath his forehead, with the neck straight, and the 
mouth and nose free and open. See to it that the tongue 
has not fallen back and closed the windpipe. Third, 
place the elbows against the insides of the knees and, with 
hands "upon the sides of the chest over the lower ribs, 
press downward and inward while you slowly count one, 
two, three. 

Suddenly let go, seize the shoulders as at first and raise 
the chest again, and repeat first, second and third move- 
ments over and over, doing this at least twelve times a 
minute, and at the same time do not forget to have some 
one to restore heat while you work. Boys who live near 
the water should practice this artificial respiration method 
with each other, both as exercise and to become familiar 
with it. 

After restoration put the patient to bed and see to it 
that he is warm. Give very slowly teaspoonfuls of hot 
coffee, or hot water with whisky or brandy. Five drop 
doses of ammonia in water will be found to be a good 
stimulant. The room must be well ventilated, the patient 
kept quiet and sleep encouraged. 



INDEX 



Accommodation, 119. 

Acid, nitric, 21. 

Acne, 94. 

Adenoid growths, 20. 

Adulteration, 177. 

iEsculapius, 11. 

Air, composition of, 21. 

exhaled, 22. 

night, 210. 
Albumen, 154. 
Alcohol, 130, 188, 189, 190. 

effect on digestion, 195. 

injurious effects of, 191. 

effect on bones, 193. 

effect on heart, 194. 

use of, 195, 196, 197. 
Ale, 188. 

Alimentary canal, 66. 
Ammonia, 21. 
Ankle bones, 33. 
Antidote, 248. 
Antitoxin, 223, 228. 
Aorta, 59. 

arch of, 56. 
Appendix, 67, 77. 
Arteries, 60. 
Artery — 

pulmonary, 56, 60. 

hepatic, 79. 
Arsenic poisoning, 248. 
Assimilation, 80, 86. 
Astigmatism, 123, 124. 
Auditory canal, 131. 
Auricles, 56. 
Auditory nerve, 133. 
Auto-intoxication, 98. 
Axis cylinder, 102. 



Bacteria, 86, 210, 217. 

Baths, 95, 183, 184, 185, 186. 

Beef, corned, 170. 

Beer, 88. 

Bile, 67, 79, 85, 87. 

Bioplasm, 40. 

Biscuits, 153. 

Blackheads, 91. 

Bleeding, 241. 

Blood, 51. 

arterial, 79. 

circulation of, 59, 60, 61 f 
62. 

clotting of, 52. 

composition, 51. 

corpuscles, 51. 

hygiene, 55. 

plates, 51, 55. 
Boiling, 165. 
Bone, 32, 34, 48, 130. 

composition of, 34. 

covering of, 35. 

table of, 37. 
Bone ash, 34. 
Bouillon, 168. 

Bowels, inflammation of, 77. 
Brain, 106. 

size and weight of, 109. 
Brandy, 168. 
Bread, 149, 153. 

baking, 163. 
Breathing, 21, 149. 

exercises in, 26. 
Broiling, 165. 
Bronchial tubes, 18. 
Bruises, 246. 
Burns, 95, 248, 249. 
Butter, 172. 



251 



252 



INDEX 



Candy, 72, 174. 
Capillaries, 16, 61. 
Carbohydrates, 159. 
Carbon dioxide, 16, 21, 22, 99. 
Cardiac orifice, 75. 
Cartilage, 36. 
Catsup, 175. 
Cell activity, 40. 

life, 41. 
Cells, 38, 39. 
Cerebro-spinal system, 101, 

104. 
Cerebellum, 106, 107, 108, 111. 
Cerebrum, 106, 107, 108. 
Cheese, 151. 

adulteration of, 173. 
Chloral, 191. 
Chocolate, 157. 
Choking, 245. 
Chyme, 78, 84. 
Cigarettes, 198. 
Clavicle, 32. 
Cleanliness, 186. 
Clothing, 175, 177, 178, 179, 

180, 181. 
Cochlea, 131, 132. 
Cocoa, 157. 
Codliver oil, 84. 
Coffee, 157. 
Collar bone, 32. 
Colds, 24. 
Cold spots, 135. 
Colon, The, 67, 78. 
Color-blindness, 120 121. 
Condiments, 353. 
Conjunctiva, 125. 
Consumption, 223, 232. 
Contagion, 224. 
Cornea, 117. 
Cooking, 162, 169. 
Corium, 89. 
Corn meal, 174. 
Corpuscles, 52, 53, 54. 
Corti^ organ of, 133. 
Crystalline lens, 117. 



Dandruff, 96. 

Death, 14. 

Dentine, 71. 

Dermatitis, 94. 

Dermis, 89. 

Desks, 213. 

Diaphragm, 18, 19. 

Diet, 157. 

Digestion, organs of, 66. 

gastric, 81. 

intestinal, 83. 

stomach, 81. 
Diphtheria, 227, 228. 

care of, 231. 

germs of, 230. 

management of, 229. 
Disease, 42. 
Disinfection, 239. 
Draughts, 23. 
Drinks, 156. 
Drowning, 249. 
Drugs, 113. 
Dust, 24, 214. 

Ear bones, 132. 
Ears, care of, 133. 
Eczema, 94. 
Eggs, 152. 
Elimination, 89. 
Emergencies, 341. 
Emulsion, 84. 
Epilepsy, 247. 
Epidermis, 89, 90. 
Epiglottis, 130, 137, 138. 
Esophagus, 74. 
Esquimau, food of, 158. 
Eustachian tube, 20, 131. 
Expiration, 16, 19. 
Eye, 116. 

specks in, 245. 
Eyeball, 117. 

muscles of, 119. 
Eyesight, defects in, 121. 

care of, 126. 

protection of, 124. 



INDEX 



253 



Face, bones of, 32. 

Fainting, 246. 

Fats, digestion of, 82, 87. 

Fauces, 66. 

Femur, 33. 

Fermentation, 87. 

Ferments, 73, 87. 

Fibrine, 52. 

Fibula, 33. 

Fever, scarlet, 230, 231. 

Fissures, 107. 

Fits, 247. 

Flesh hairs, 128. 

Flour, 154, 174. 

Flourine, 71. 

Food, 148. 

amount of, 176. 

choice of, 80. 

nitrogenous, 159. 

preserved, 169, 170. 

proportion of elements, 
161. 

vegetable, 153. 
Foot, bones of, 33. 
Formaldehyde, 239. 
Frost bite, 95, 246. 
Fruits, 155, 174, 175. 
Frying, 165. 

Gall bladder, 67, 85. 
Ganglia, 101, 103. 
Gases, 18, 215, 216. 
Gastric juice, 76, 87. 
Gelatine, 16. 
Glands, 67. 

oil, 125. 

parotid, 72. 

peptic, 76. 

racemose, 68. 

salivary, 72. 

sebaceous, 90, 91, 95, £ 

sublingual, 73. 

sweat, 90, 92. 

tear, 125. 

tubular, 68, 81, 83. 
Gluten, 154. 
Granules, 40. 



Gray matter, 102, 103, 104, 

111. 
Grinder's consumption, 24. 
Ground air, 25. 
Gullet, 66. 

Habits, 112. 

Habitation, 199, 200, 201, 202. 

Haemoglobin, 51, 53. 

Hair, 91, 96. 

follicle of, 90, 91. 
Hand, bones of, 33, 35. 
Headache powders, 191. 
Headaches, 17, 110, 123. 
Health, 41. 
Hearing, 132, 141. 
Heart, 56. 

divisions of, 57. 

sounds of, 58. 

valves of, 57, 58. 
Heat spots, 135. 
Hinge joints, 48. 
House diseases, 23. 
Humerus, 32. 
Humidity, 209, 210. 
Hutchison, 162. 
Hygeia, 11. 

Hygiene, 11, 12, 13, 113. 
Hygrometer, 210, 211. 

Ice water, 82. 
Ileum, 76. 
Incisors, 71. 
Incus, 132. 

Indianapolis, filter beds of, 146. 
Infection, method of spread- 
ing, 222. 

sanitary precautions 
against, 224, 225. 
Infectious diseases, 226. 
Inspiration, 16, 19. 
Intestine, small, 66 y 67, 76. 

large, 66, 77, 78. 

coats of, 76. 
Involuntary muscles, 43, 44. 
Iris, 117. 
Itch, 94. 



254 



INDEX 



Jawbone, 20. 
Jams, 174. 
Jejunum, 76. 
Jellies, 174. 
Joints, 47. 

ball-and-socket, 48, 49. 

hinge, 48. 

hip, 49. 

movements of, 48, 49. 

pivot, 49. 
Kidneys, 96. 

tubules of the, 97. 

work of the, 98. 

Labyrinth, 131, 132. 
Lakes, water from, 145. 
Larynx, 20, 137. 

muscles of, 138. 
Laudanum, 190. 
Leg, bones of, 133. 

veins of, 62. 
Lemonade, 156. 
Lens, crystalline, 117. 
Ligaments, 49. 
Liver, 85, 99. 
Lungs, 18, 19, 98. 
Lymph, 64. 
Lymphatics, 64. 

Malaria, 222. 
Malleus, 132. 
Marrow, 34. 
Measles, 226. 
Meats, 151, 152. 

canned, 175. 

cooking of, 164, 165. 
Median fissure, 105. 
Medulla oblongata, 106, 107, 

108, 111. 
Metacarpals, 37. 
Metatarsals, 37. 
Membranes, mucous, 66. 
Microbe diseases, 221. 
Microbes, 214, 216, 217, 218. 
Middle ear, 131. 
Milk, 149. 

adulteration of, 172. 

poisons in, 172. 



Mind, hygiene of, 113. 
Moisture, 29. 
Molars, 70. 
Morphine, 190. 
Mouth, 20, 68. 
Muscle-plasma, 45. 
Muscles, arm, 46. 

composition of, 44. 

health of, 47. 

kinds of, 43, 45. 
Muscular sense, 134. 
Myopia, 122. 
Myosin, 44. 

Nails of fingers, 90. 
Narcotics, 190. 
Nasal cavity, 20. 
Near-sight, 121. 
Nerve cells, 102. 

fibers, 103. 

filaments, 128. 

habits, 112. 

tissue, 102. 

stimulus, 46. 
Nerves, cranial, 109. 

facial, 110. 

functions of, 105, 106. 

of the ear, 131, 132. 

of the eye, 118. 

of the nose, 128. 

of the tongue, 130. 

of touch, 133. 

pneumogastric, 110. 

sensory, 110. 
Nervous system, 100. 

divisions of, 101. 

work of, 100. 
Neuralgia, 110. 
Nicotine, 192. 
Night air, 23. 
Nitric acid, 21. 
Nitrogen, 21, 22. 
Nose tumors, 21. 
Nucleus, 40. 
Nucleus, 40, 102. 
Nuts, 155. 



INDEX 



255 



Oblique muscles, 119. 

Oculists, 120. 

Old-sight, 123. 

Olfactory nerve, 128. 

Opium, 190. 

Optic nerve, 117, 118. 

Oral cavity, 17. 

Organic life, processes of, 101. 

Organisms, 218. 

Ossein, 34. 

Oxygen, 16, 21, 22, 98. 

Oxy-haemoglobin, 54. 

Pain sense, 134. 
Palate, 69, 128. 
Pancreatic duct, 67. 

gland, 76. 

juices, 78, 83, 84. 
Pancreas, 67, 78. 
Papillae, 68, 89, 130. 
Papules, 93. 
Peas, 154. 
Pelvis, 98. 
Pericardium, 57. 
Periosteum, 35. 
Perspiration, 92, 93. 
Phagocytes, 54. 
Pharynx, 20, 66, 69, 73, 137. 
Physiology, defined, 15. 
Pickling, 170. 
Pigment cells, 40, 90. 
Pillars, 137. 
Plasma, 51. 
Pleura, 18. 
Pleurisy, 18. 
Poisoning, 248. 
Portal Circulation, 63. 
Potato, 160. 
Preservatives, 175. 
Produce, garden, 154. 
Proteids, 159, 160. 
Protoplasm, 40. 
Protozoa, 217, 220. 
Pulp cavity, 71. 
Pulse, the, 58. 
Ptyalin, 73, 80, 82. 
Pupil, 117. 
Pyloric orifice, 75. 



Eadius, 32, 33. 
Eecti muscles, 119. 
Keflex action, 112. 
Eespiration, 249. 
Ketina, 118. 
Eing worm, 94. 
Eivers, waters of, 145. 
Eoasting, 165. 
Eoot beer, 156. 

Saliva, 67. 

Salivary glands, 72, 73. 

Salts, 161. 

Scalds, 246. 

Scapula, 32. 

Scarf skin, 90. 

Scarlet fever, 230. 

School houses, 203, 204, 205, 

207, 208, 210. 
School rooms, 27, 28, 30. 
Sclerotic coat, 116. 
Serum, 52. 
Senses, the, 116. 
Septum, 128. 
Sheath, primitive, 102. 

medullary, 102. 
Short-sight, 122. 
Sickroom, 236, 237, 238. 
Sight, 116. 

defects in, 120. 
Singing, 140. 
Skeleton, 31. 
Skin, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94. 
Skull, 31, 48. 
Sleep, 114. 
Smallpox, 223. 
Smoke, 215, 216. 
Sodawater, 156. 
Sound, vibrations of, 132. 
Soups, 168, 169. 
Speech, 136, 138, 139. 
Spinal cord, 103, 105. 
Spirilla, 210. 
Sprains, 245. 
Springs, water of, 145. 
Stapes, 132. 
Starch, 73. 



256 



INDEX 



Stimulants, 188. 
Strains, 245. 
Strychnine, 250. 
Sugar, 174. 
Sunburn, 95. 
Sunstroke, 246. 
Swimming, 186. 
Sympathetic system, 101. 
Syrups, 174. 

Tarsal bones, 37. 
Taste, 129, 130. 
Tea, 155, 157. 
Tear duct, 125. 

gland, 125. 
Teeth, 69. 

care of, 71, 186. 

permanent, 69. 

structure, 70, 71. 

temporary, 69, 70. 
Temperature, 209, 211. 
Temperature sense, 131. 
Tendons, 47. 
Thermometer, 211. 
Thoracic duct, 65. 
Thorax, 18. 
Tibia, 23. 
Tissues, 38. 
Tobacco, 130, 192, 193, 194, 

195, 198. 
Tongue, 20, 68, 129, 137. 
Tonsils, 69. 
Toothbone, 71. 
Touch, 133, 134. 
Trachea, 17, 20. 
Trichina, 152. 
Tuberculosis, 232. 
Tympanum, 131. 
Typhoid, 143. 



Ulna, 32, 33. 

Urea, 98. 

Ureter, 98. 

Uraemic poisoning, 93, 98. 

Uvula, 69, 137. 

Vaccination, 223. 

Vapor, 210. 

Vegetables, 166, 167. 

Veins, 60, 62. 

portal, 63. 

valves of, 62. 
Vena cava, 56, 63. 
Ventilation, 27, 205. 
Ventricles, 56. 
Vertebrae, 32, 37. 
Villi, 76, 85, 86. 
Vinegar ferments, 87. 
Viscera, 67. 
Vitreous body, 118. 
Vocal cords, 137, 138, 139. 
Voice, 136. 
Vowel sounds, 139. 

Wall paper, 201. 
Waste matter, 16. 
Water, 141. 

amount required, 162. 

pollution of, 145. 

purification of, 146. 

rain, 142, 143. 

well, 143. 
Wells, 144, 145. 
Whisky, 113, 188. 
Wounds, 241, 242, 244. 

Yeast, 153. 
Yellow fever, 217. 



Msi 161906 



